Kale seed multiplication schemes take off in Kenya |
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| Management of virus diseases of vegetable crops and the promotion of quality Kale seed in Kenya | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Smallholders in Kenya are producing healthy, good quality kale seed thanks to a new model for sustainable multiplication. The first step was to establish the primary virus diseases responsible for crop loss. Then, researchers identified and compared new, improved varieties with resistance to the major threats to farmer varieties. They also surveyed farmer preferences to determine their preferred multiplication methods. The new model, together with a scheme for improved seed certification, has reached more than 1000 farmers, NGOs and micro-entrepreneurs. Multiplication plots are providing large batches of seed and farmers have been set up as seed producers in remote zones. Project Ref: CPP11:
Research Programmes: DFID Crop Protection Programme Relevant Research Projects: R7571, R8312, R8439 Institutional partners:
Smallholder vegetable production is an important and expanding component of rural livelihoods in Kenya, providing vital employment and income for poor farming communities. Although it is recognised that viral pathogens were/are responsible for major crop-losses, their nature and true impact have been poorly understood. Our projects arose as a result of concern expressed by KARI, CABI-ARC and the periurban (PU) PSL that the constraints these diseases place on vegetable crops were not being adequately addressed. The scope of these projects was Kenya, with an emphasis on Brassicae and Swiss chard. In initial project R7571, the primary viruses responsible for most-common viral diseases of vegetables were identified and characterised. To compare the outcomes of either early- (seedling) or late- (post-nursery) stage infection on the impact of viral disease, effects timing of infection with Beet mosaic virus, Cauliflower mosaic virus and/or Turnip mosaic virus on yields of Cabbage, Kale and/or Swiss chard were determined. Alternative IPM strategies (application of mulches, fleece, dimethoate), to reduce incidence of aphid vectors were identified. These were evaluated by farmers' groups, and cost analyses undertaken. In order to ascertain vegetable farmers' perceptions of management strategies for viral diseases, an extensive Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was undertaken, as well as a survey of farmers' Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK). It was clear that a large number of farmers ranked a lack of availability of good quality seed alongside incidence of pests and diseases, as equally limiting to their success as vegetable growers. The overall emphasis of subsequent projects R8312 and R8439 became the promotion of a sustainable system for farmer-led multiplication of kale seed for smallholders. To understand farmers' perceptions/market needs w.r.t. seed purchases, we surveyed the availability, distribution, supply of brassica seed in the Kenyan commercial seed sector, and a seed inventory was also drafted. To ascertain health of existing kale seed, brassica seed lots from across Kenya were screened for Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) and Alternaria sp. High levels of these pathogens were found with farmers. Crop residue management practices to control incidence of black rot (Xcc) were evaluated, and the half-life for the inoculum was established (leaf only). To measure the potential for registering commercial (kale) seed business, farmers and local seed companies were canvassed. Constraints/opportunities were identified, and a recommended plan produced. In order to develop a production strategy for improved kale seed, participatory on-farm-trials were undertaken with key farmers' groups, alongside Distinctiveness Uniformity and Stability (DUS) trials at Njabini Research Station. As a result >20 Kale lines were fully characterised. Five Kinale superior kale lines, designated CAB 1-5, were identified, and their seeds were submitted to KEPHIS with documentation detailing respective characteristics. Preliminary results of DUS confirm that these "improved" lines are indeed distinct from existing commercial varieties. Seeds of all lines developed in R8312 deposited in KARI genetic resources unit, and in vegetable gene bank (Warwick-HRI). The performances of CABI 1-5 have been evaluated compared to local varieties, through multilocational trials, with farmer participatory input. To enable smallholders to produce healthy, good quality seed of acceptable market value, a suitable model for a sustainable kale seed multiplication system was identified. The preferred leaf-harvesting model was validated by farmers and project members. The use of good seed multiplication practice for kale and improved seed certification using the preferred model have been promoted through factsheets which were disseminated to >1,000 potential smallholder farmers, NGOs and micro-entrepreneurs through KARI, extension services, NGO's and other CPP uptake pathways in Kenya (also translated into Swahili), using preferred model. Local seed-testing capability was enhanced by reciprocal visits between key personnel from KEPHIS Plant Health Quarantine Station, who visited HRI for training in latest ISTA technical methodologies for seed testing/pathotyping of Xcc, HRI personnel who travelled to laboratories at KEPHIS & KARI-NARL. To prepare for continuous multiplication/commercialisation of improved kale seeds, multiplication plots have been established to provide large batches of seed. Discussions have also been initiated with farmers on setting up as seed producers, and remote zones on forest edges of Njabini have been identified as suitable sites. A farmers' association, LASEGRO (Lari Seed Growers Self Help Group re. cert. 19012) has been registered. The project team is now looking to engage the private sector, and to establish landrace ownership models with farmers. Outputs from the above projects include numerous datasets, conference presentations, and several fact sheets and posters. Other key written outputs are: Njuki et al. (2003). Socioeconomic report, 56pp; Njuki et al. (2003) Survey Report. CABI-ARC19pp. Spence et al. (2006) Plant Pathology (in Press).
The main commodities upon which these outputs focussed were kale, cabbage, spinach and Swiss chard. However, outputs obtained from projects R8312 and R8439 could equally be applied to many other brassica/cruciferous crops grown in PU districts of Africa, or to any other crops from which seeds are harvested and could be commercialised for the benefit of local groups. The beneficial crop-management practices identified in R7571 (e.g. use of straw mulches on nursery beds to reduce aphid numbers and incidence of viral disease) could potentially be applied to many other crops that are vulnerable to vector-borne pathogens.
The main focus of the PU vegetable cluster since 1995 has been Kenya and brassica crops in PU vegetable systems. The virus management project (R7571) was conceived, and then further expanded (R8312/R8439), to address a research gap in the overall management of pests and diseases affecting brassica crops in these systems, insect pests, fungal diseases and nematodes being addressed through other CPP projects (R6764, R7403, R7449 and R7472). Outputs from R7571/R8312/R8439 were/are highly complementary to these other projects, and enhanced the cluster's ability to address major biotic constraints affecting brassica crops in PU vegetable systems in Kenya. These outputs could also be usefully clustered with any/all other projects that address viral disease of vegetables, seed quality, use of nurseries and farmer grower associations. For example: CPP R8480 (also Swedish Development Council (SDC) funded) Good Seed Initiative: seed quality and farmer practices for saving seed. CPP R8429/R8281 Linking demand and supply of agricultural information. CPP R8104/R8435 Farmer multiplication systems [potato/ground nut]: Quality and seed; setting up a seed growers group; CPP R8435/R8104/R7856 Sustainable potato seed tuber management: Focus on nursery plot management; Quality and seed; setting up a seed growers group; CPP R8299/R8219/R8296/R8041/R7813/R7472/R7403/R6764 Accelerated uptake and impact of CPP research outputs - for up-scaling How the outputs were validated: R7571 evaluated the feasibility/implications of different viral disease management strategies. Validators were >100 Kenyan smallholders (highland rainfed; irrigated), from PU Nairobi (project endusers): Some validators were already group-members, all farming along the Ruiru River. Others, at Athi River, were especially brought together to participate in PRA and on-farm trials. All farmers were growing vegetables for on-farm consumption and sale in neighbouring markets. Four treatments were evaluated: application of fleece, straw mulch, farmer practice treatment (dimethoate) and no treatment (control). Farmers selected criteria to assess alternative management strategies (labour requirements, availability of materials, ability to control the disease, etc.). Farmers ranked each treatment (best = 1, worst = 4) according to these criteria, and indicated pro.s/con.s in each case. The relative effect(s) of three different leaf-harvesting regimes on quantity/quality of kale-seed were evaluated. Trials were replicated in test beds (Njabini Research Sub-Centre), and on-farm, by participatory farmers' groups. 300 farmers (50 families) participated, s.t. a preferred model was validated at a wide range of smallholdings. Validators were therefore primarily PU Kenyan smallholders (highland rainfed), from Nairobi (project endusers), and also KARI personnel. Farmers provided land and labour; the project provided seeds, pesticides and fertilizers. Farmers participated in land preparation, sowing, transplanting, crop protection, leaf/seed harvesting. Each harvesting regime was evaluated once/selected farm and four times on-station. On-station trials were arranged in a randomised split-plot design, with seed production models as main plots, and four CABI lines as subplots. Randomisations were generated using Genstat. Cost-Benefit analyses of leaf and seed yields w.r.t. harvesting regimes at different sites, were undertaken by Steven J. Roberts (Consultant Plant Pathologist, Plant Health Solutions, Warwick UK), and CABI-Africa Project members)). Prior to registration, selfed-seeds from improved kales, designated CABI 1-5, were submitted to KEPHIS to allow completion of DUS trials. (Seeds of two commercial kale varieties served as local checks for comparison). KEPHIS also received full characterisation details for each line. Validation of CABI 1-5 performance compared with local commercial varieties was carried out b.m.o. multilocational trials in different agro-ecological zones of Central and Western Kenya. Kale-growing farmers (~500 individuals) from different districts were also supplied with seeds to grow on their farms; they subsequently completed evaluation questionnaires. Most participating farmers were male, came from the Lari or Ruiru Divisions of Kiambu district, and had grown kale for 10-40 years. >100 responses were returned; data was summarised using SPSS statistical package. Validation was therefore conducted by PU Kenyan smallholders (highland rainfed), from various districts within Nairobi (project endusers), and also CABI and KEPHIS personnel. (At each site, trials were laid out in a randomised design with four and three replicates for the on-station and on-farm trials, respectively). Two participatory seed-production demonstration plots were established on-farm with existing farmer groups (see above). Sites were selected by farmers, and CABI 1-5 seeds were sown by farmers' group representatives. Seed crops are managed by the farmers themselves (Bathi), or farmers employ someone to tend the crop (Njabini). Farmers' group representatives visit once/week, to monitor progress. CABI/KARI staff provided technical backstopping. Where the Outputs were Validated: Validation of viral disease-management strategies: on working farms in 2 districts (Ruiru River; Athi River), in growing seasons between March 2000-2003. (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland, also irrigated; Social groups: Smallhoder farmers, male/female, moderate poor (endusers)). Validation of preferred harvesting model: at Njabini KARI Research Sub-Centre, South Kinangop, (foot of Aberdare mountain ranges) and at highland rainfed PU smallholdings at Kinale, Gitithia and Bathi. Initial plantings February 2004; trials continued throughout subsequent growing season (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland; Social groups: Smallhoder farmers, male/female, moderate poor (endusers)). DUS trials: KEPHIS Nakuru site (rainfed highland) in 2005 (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland). Multilocational validation trials: In central Kenya, on-station trials were established at Kabete (Univ. Nairobi's College Agriculture and Veterinary Services' farm), Njabini (KARIs farm) and Thika (KARI-National Horticultural Research Centre's farm). An on-farm trial was also established in Mwea. In Western Kenya, lines were validated at 3 stations, including Lagrotech Research Station at Lisuka Farm (on the shores of Lake Victoria 10 km from Kisumu City), KARI Kakamega, and Kisii FTC. Seeds were raised in nursery beds and transplanted four weeks later, in May/June 2005. Harvesting continued fortnightly until Spring 2006 (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland; Social groups: Smallholder farmers, male/female, moderate poor (endusers)). Farmer participatory trials: Farmers received seed in Kinale, Fathi, Gitithia, Nyathona, Athi River, Ruiru and Karig'uine, before the 2005 growing season (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland; Social groups: Smallhoder farmers, male/female, moderate poor (endusers)). Demonstration plots: located at Bathi and Njabini, in Nyandarua and Kiambu Districts, respectively. Farmers selected sites in April 2005. Sowing/transplanting took place in May/June 2005. Harvesting took place in 2006 (Production System: PU; Farming system: Smallholder rainfed highland; Social groups: Smallhoder farmers, male/female, moderate poor (endusers)). Who are the Users? Kale lines CABI 1-5 have remained with farmers (i.e. male/female, moderate poor endusers), who are retaining/bulking seed; KEPHIS are using project methods for identifying the Black rot pathogen Xcc when testing seeds, but Where the outputs have been used: In Kenya (by KEPHIS, and by smallholder farmers of PU Nairobi, in rainfed highland systems). Scale of Current Use: The project team have received anecdotal accounts of spread and unofficial exchange of seed between farmers, but no formal feedback has been received. Only when this information has been collected from farmers will we have a clear indication of the usage, both in terms of scale, and impact(s) on poverty (see under "Poverty Impact Studies"). Current extent of use by KEPHIS is only occasional, due to problems in obtaining chemicals required for diagnostics. Policy and Institutional Structures, and Key Components for Success: There is a robust history of collaboration between project partners, which has continued to grow since the 1990s, with very strong links with KEPHIS developed for all regulatory aspects of the work. This relationship has been key to project success. Local links to district offices have been equally valuable (e.g. the Community Development Authority, and the District Social Development Officer (Kiambu District), under the National Community Development Programme Kenya, were instrumental in obtaining official registration for Lari Division farmers in preparation for continuous multiplication/commercialisation of improved kale seeds). North south linkages technology transfer has been effective in a number of ways. Notable examples are: 1. - Knowledge of seed-selection trial design was devised at HRI (UK), and implemented locally (Kenya) both on-farm and at Njabini Research Station; 2. - Reciprocal training visits between key personnel from KEPHIS Plant Health Quarantine Station (& KARI-NARL) and HRI, re. seed health issues and development of protocols, proved very successful; 3. - Existing threshold levels of Xcc in local and imported seed was determined at KEPHIS, thus providing baseline data re. African (Kenyan) kale seed health. Prior to project R7571, there was no descriptor in existence for kale DUS, but by drawing on existing experience with other crops, as well as through gaining new knowledge, these were put in place. Farmer knowledge in IPM, seed production and seed quality/health have all been strengthened through participatory activities undertaken in R7571/R8312/R8439. Lessons Learned and Uptake Pathways Promotion of Outputs: Promotion is taking place in PU rainfed highland districts of Kenya, and is aimed at smallholder farmers, (male/female; moderate poor endusers). To promote sustainable seed-production technologies, on-farm participatory demonstration plots were established in Lari Division, where smallholders are very keen to learn more about seed-processing. In preparation for continuous multiplication/commercialisation of improved kale seeds, Lari Division farmers have had extensive discussions amongst themselves and the Community Development Authority. They have obtained official registration from the District Social Development Officer (Kiambu District), under the National Community Development Programme (Kenya). Posters and factsheets*, encouraging alternative management of viral diseases, good seed multiplication practices, and emphasising the value of producing/purchasing good quality vegetable seed, were translated into Swahili and distributed to >1,000 potential smallholder farmers, NGOs and micro-entrepreneurs through KARI, extension services, NGO's and other CPP uptake pathways in Kenya. Farmers who received factsheets/posters were also given packets of CAB 1-5 seeds for personal use.
Experience gained during R7571/R8312/R8439 can have additional impact through the implementation of the Good Seed Initiative (CPP R8480) as funded and promoted by The Swedish Development Council. Potential Barriers Preventing Adoption of Outputs: PRA data obtained in project R7571 showed that smallholder farmers are enthusiastic about the use of alternative control strategies (such as the use of fleece and/or mulches on nursery beds), in the management of viral diseases in vegetables, and that they are keen to participate in further trials. Constraints identified are that fleece is currently unavailable in Kenya and that some farmers are unable to gain access to straw mulch. (Avenues of investigation to find alternative sources were initiated at the end of this project). Farmers were also keen to increase the use of resistant varieties to overcome virus disease, but the need for further research in this area remains outstanding. Good seed multiplication practice for kale and seed certification using a preferred model were promoted in R8312 and follow-on project R8439, but there is now a demand to go beyond this and to register and release Kinale kale seed varieties. There are several barriers that must be overcome to allow registration to be achieved. These are listed below. Farmer groups are not currently in a position to take seed-registration, multiplication and marketing opportunities forward; Access to seed, access to inputs and access to markets are limited; There is a need to establish a landrace ownership model, not just for kale, but also as a template for other crops of value to poor farmers in developing countries. How to Overcome Barriers to Adoption of Outputs: There is a need to raise awareness of advantages of good integrated pest management strategies with farmers, and also the issues re. Xcc; In order to allow endusers (PU Kenyan smallholders) to fully exploit all potential opportunities afforded by project outputs (seed-registration, multiplication, marketing/branding of product, use of improved kale lines), commercial management capacity and farmers' group dynamics need to be clarified and strengthened. Appropriate diffusion pathways must be used to continue promotion of project outputs; Access to seed, access to inputs and access to markets must be improved; Lessons Learned: Data obtained through PRAs, conducted not only for quality kale seed in Kenya projects, but as part of other CPP projects carried out in Uganda within the same timeframe (R7568/R8316/R8478), provided valuable information about diffusion pathways in PU farming systems. We learnt that even when farmers have a good understanding of viral diseases based on their observations and extensive experience, there may also be aspects that they neither know nor understand (causal agents, predisposing factors, bases of management practices). Therefore, when disseminating information/outputs, participatory farmers activities and smallscale growing plots at local schools, both represent ideal opportunities for raising awareness of improved kale varieties. They also provide forums at which to identify appropriate extension materials. Available diffusion pathways for smallholder farmers include places of worship, friends, community members, relatives, markets, local farmers groups, newspapers, public notice boards, local council secretaries, local leaders, bars and burial places. By contrast, market places, radio, politicians, seminars, workshops and filmshows may only be rarely-utilised. Of all sources identified, farmers groups are likely to be most important. Kale farming is not an exclusively-male occupation. Women are thus potential assets as adopters of new technologies and products, and a suitable diffusion pathway since they share more than men. Strategies designed to increase adoption must target women. Promotional material (factsheets, posters etc.) must also be in a format with meaning to endusers (e.g. translated into Swahili). It is important to acknowledge any communication-bias in favour of close relations that will impede fair "trade" of improved kale lines throughout communities. This is particularly relevant when one considers that, at present, almost three quarters of seed used on farms is either own-grown, or passed-on between immediate family. Poverty Impact Studies: No formal poverty impact studies have been undertaken. However, less formal studies including extensive validation of alternative virus-disease control strategies, and of the performance of CABI 1-5 kale lines compared with local commercial varieties, have been completed. In all cases, validation was undertaken by enduser groups, and the feedback obtained from them reflected their perceived benefits (both nutritional and financial), of applying outputs obtained from this project cluster. In addition to this, full cost benefit analyses were applied to data obtained from harvesting regime trials (as described below). It is important to note that, if comprehensive data could be collected from farmers, detailing their own experiences of growing CABI 1-5, this would be invaluable in providing a critical assessment on impacts on poverty. How the Poor have Benefited (including gender and other poverty groups): In general terms, projects R7571/R8312/R8439 contributed to sustainable rural livelihoods in that their outputs will help farmers to produce their vegetable crops (for consumption and sale) in a safe, effective and economic way. We involved a wide range of stakeholders including KARI and CABI, named target institutions, as well as Extension services and NGOs. Target beneficiaries (smallholder farmers), were closely involved throughout, directed research according to their needs. When fully realised, the advantages of using alternative virus disease management strategies, and improved kale lines will include improved nutrition for whole families, better cash returns from higher yields of better quality produce and an empowerment through agricultural knowledge to help them make informed choices on other cropping options. Feedback obtained from evaluation questionnaires, completed by >100 smallholders (working in PU rainfed highland Kenya) who had been provided with kales CABI 1-5, was overwhelmingly positive, reflecting their perceived benefits (nutritional and financial) of these improved lines: CABI kale lines germinated faster, transplanted better, and provided a longer period for leaf-harvesting than farmers' own varieties. CABI lines were larger, more resistant to attack by pests and diseases, and farmers perceived the colour/shape of their leaves to be superior to local counterparts'. They had a shorter cooking time and were more palatable. The vast majority of farmers ranked the CABI kale lines as having greater consumer appeal than any other varieties they normally grow. They were willing to buy the seeds of CABI lines for their own use, and would recommend these lines to other growers. Three seed production models were evaluated (R8312): A. Full leaf harvesting - kale leaves were picked continuously for the entire growing period up to flowering; B. Half harvest - Leaf harvesting for half the frequency undertaken in regime A; C. No leaf-harvesting. A full cost benefit analysis was then undertaken, comparing seed yields obtained under each alternative harvesting regime, taking into account all costs incurred and all benefits accrued to the kale production process. Prices used were farm gate prices per kilo of seeds and per kilo of leaves produced. Computations for leaves referred only to marketable leaves. Total costs referred to an aggregation of labour, seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. Labour costs included land preparation, sowing, transplanting, weeding, pesticide application and harvesting. These labour costs were derived from discussions with farmers. The costs for seeds, fertilizers and pesticides were derived from market prices. It was found that, irrespective of the site at which trials were undertaken, the no leaf harvesting model generated the highest net benefits. Farmers utilizing this regime could expect to obtain up to twice the gross income from their seed crop, compared to regimes in which leaves were also harvested:
Indirect impacts on poverty to date (unmeasured) include: increased vegetable production, increased nutrition, increased health and, in turn, improved resilience to HIV and other human diseases. Direct and Indirect Environmental Benefits:
Adverse Environmental Impacts: No direct adverse environmental effects have been recorded. However, increased productivity of farms may be associated with bigger farms that, in turn, may translate into landscape change and reduced biodiversity. Also, there is potential for a concomitant increase in demand for water for irrigation purposes. Coping with the Effects of Climate Change, or Risk from Natural Disasters: Not directly applicable. However, increased productivity on farms, leading to improved nutrition and incomes will, in turn, increase endusers health thus reducing vulnerability to HIV and other diseases. Relevant Research Projects,
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