More shrubs mean more milk in East Africa |
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| Scaling up the promotion of fodder shrubs in East Africa. Factors affecting nutritive value of Calliandra calothyrsus | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Two million small farmers in East Africa could increase milk production simply by planting fodder shrubs - as an extra high-protein feed for cows and goats. The shrubs don't take up valuable land. They can be planted alongside paths, on field boundaries and banks. Plus, not a lot of labour is involved. About 48,000 farmers in Kenya, 33,000 in Uganda, 11,000 in Rwanda and 8,000 in northern Tanzania now grow fodder shrubs because they quickly reap substantial benefits. Farmers consistently report an increase of around 1-2 litres of milk per animal per day. So, the market for seeds of fodder shrubs is thriving. Over 40 dealers now market seed and seedlings across Kenya. Project Ref: FRP43:
Research Programmes:. DFID Forestry Research Programme (FRP) Relevant Research Projects: The principal project described in this document is R6549, but this project built upon the outputs of several previous, supporting projects. R4485 carried out range-wide provenance collections of Calliandra calothyrsus Meissn. ("calliandra") in Central America, which were subsequently evaluated in multi-locational agronomic trials throughout the tropics under R5728 and R6535. For Leucaena species (which have also been promoted under R6549) project R6524 investigated resistance and tolerance to the psyllid pest Heteropsylla cubana, using a range of species and provenances collected in Mexico and Central America under an earlier FRP project, R4524. Projects R6524 and R6535 are also included in the FRP Output Listing, so their contact details are included below. R6549:
R6524:
R6535:
There are an estimated 1.8 million smallholder dairy farmers in Kenya, and smaller but still substantial numbers in Tanzania (124,000) Uganda (100,000), and Rwanda *. Many dairy animals fail to realise their genetic potential for milk production because of shortage and poor quality of fodder, especially during the dry season. Most farmers cannot afford adequate supplementation with purchased concentrates. In the 1980s, exotic fodder shrubs with high-protein leaves (calliandra, several leucaena species, mulberry, gliricidia) were introduced to the East African region to address this 'quality gap'. Calliandra was the most promising of the species tested, but little was known about how to manage it to optimise its feeding value. By the late 1990s, uptake was largely restricted to Central Kenya and pockets in other parts of Kenya and Uganda.
Phase 1 of R6549 (1996-2001) consisted of on-station and laboratory research into ways to optimise the fodder quality of calliandra. In Phase 2 (2001-2006), the project's emphasis shifted to scaling up the adoption of calliandra and other fodder shrubs in East Africa, at the same time ensuring that the outputs from Phase 1 were disseminated as widely and effectively as possible. The research on psyllid resistance under R6524 contributed to the selection of the leucaena species now being promoted (L. trichandra, L. pallida and L. diversifolia). Output 1: Optimised fodder shrub technology for smallholder dairy farmers (technology) The findings from Phase 1, optimising the utilisation of calliandra, have been incorporated into extension messages promoted by R6549. The research on management and utilisation of fodder shrubs (by both R6549 and a range of other projects and institutions) has enabled the development of a robust, replicable technology which is attractive to farmers because it is simple to use and delivers a clear, tangible benefit (increased milk production) over a short time frame. Output 2: Facilitation of the scaling up process (methodology, service) The methodology we developed for scaling up was informed by studies of adoption in Rwanda and of farmer-to-farmer dissemination in Kenya; assessment of the economic impact of calliandra in Kenya and Uganda; and documentation of farmers' experiences in Uganda and Tanzania. A key element of the approach was the dissemination facilitator, an extension specialist who backstopped 20-30 governmental, non-governmental (NGO), and community based organisations (CBO) over an area of several districts. The dissemination facilitator's role involved value addition to existing activities by working mainly through partnerships with other stakeholders promoting fodder shrubs, including the national agricultural research system (NARS), governmental extension providers, national and international NGOs and CBOs; enhancing their activities through training of trainers (ToT) and technical backstopping; and working with farmer groups at the community level. Output 3: Extension manual/DST and other dissemination materials (product) To capture the experiences and lessons from our scaling up activities, we produced an extension manual/decision support tool (DST) for extension providers in East Africa, as well as a range of other extension materials (booklets, leaflets, posters, banners). Output 4: Improved seed system for fodder shrubs (policy) Seed supply has proved to be a major constraint to uptake of fodder shrubs, for reasons relating largely to policy constraints to the functioning of seed markets. R6549 included a study of the market for calliandra seed in Kenya, which helped us develop an improved seed marketing system, building the capacity of community seed vendors and linking them to NGOs, extension partners, farmer groups and other stakeholders.
R6549 focused on animal fodder, primarily for dairy, and therefore by extension on milk production. The outputs relating to fodder quality (Phase 1) are specific to the fodder species Calliandra calothyrsus (calliandra), but the findings of the supporting research into the dissemination process would be applicable to any commodity within the East African smallholder context. Similarly the extension manual/decision support tool, though it relates primarily to fodder shrubs, includes a section, Making Decisions about Extension Approaches, which is applicable to any type of agricultural extension with smallholders. The output on seed systems is relevant for seed in other tree enterprises, such as timber, fruits, fuelwood and medicinal plants.
Most of our work with fodder shrubs has been in high potential highland areas, often peri-urban (as dairy enterprises depend on access to a market for milk). Calliandra, the species we focused on in Phase 1 of R6549, does not thrive in semi-arid environments with rainfall <1000 mm, though it can survive rainfall as low as 800 mm provided the dry season is no longer than 3-4 months (e.g. Isingiro South, Uganda). However, there has been successful adoption of other fodder species (Leucaena pallida, L. diversifolia, L. collinsii, Acacia angustissima and Gliricidia sepium) in the semi-arid areas of Shinyanga and Tabora, Tanzania, and all the outputs of R6549 are equally applicable in this context.
Most adoption of fodder shrubs to date has been in smallholder rainfed humid and highland systems. In irrigated and wetland rice-based systems, higher value crops can be grown and farmers generally prefer to concentrate on these. Most of the fodder species on which we have focused so far do not tolerate frost, but a new species, Chamaecytisus prolifer (tagasaste, or tree lucerne) is showing promise in frost-prone highland areas of Kenya. This extends the applicability of the outputs to the smallholder rainfed dry/cold farming system.
Improving uptake A large number of projects from RNRRS programmes other than FRP (e.g. CPP, LPP) have explored aspects of dissemination and scaling up of a range of different agricultural innovations in East Africa. Among these, the farmer field school (FFS) approach, applied successfully to integrated pest management in Kenya by CABI under CPP projects R8299 and R8454, would be highly applicable to fodder shrubs. The insights into the mechanisms of farmer-to-farmer extension from the study Improving information and comunication for smallholder farmers by Farm Africa, commissioned by DFID, are also very relevant to our approach. Each of these is the subject of a separate proforma. The SCALE (System-wide Collaborative Action for Livelihoods and the Environment) methodology is another (non-RNRRS) innovative and effective approach to scaling up, which is currently (2006) being successfully applied by ICRAF in Kenya. SCALE brings civil society stakeholders together to plan and implement campaigns to promote new practices. By engaging with a wide range of stakeholders, representing all aspects of a given system (in this case, dairy production), SCALE generates change across many levels and sectors of society, using a combination of different social change methodologies including advocacy, mass communication and social mobilisation. Improving seed supply FRP Project R6535 (Genetic improvement of Calliandra calothyrsus - Phase II), and its precursor R5728, provided essential supporting research to R6549 by identifying two high-yielding calliandra provenances (Patulul, Guatemala and San Ramón, Nicaragua) to be evaluated in detail in terms of nutritive value. R6535 also supported the establishment of seed orchards of these provenances in Kenya. However these stands alone cannot meet the present high demand for planting material, so that most seed for scaling up currently has to be sourced from local land race material. Value could be added by a targeted programme of multiplication of selected calliandra provenance material in group, community, institutional and private sector seed orchards. Providing training to seed vendors and helping them link with private and public sector buyers (Output 4) has been effective in increasing adoption. How the outputs were validated: Output 1 The most compelling validation of the technology is the fact that adoption rates are high across the region: about 100,000 farmers have planted and very few abandon the technology after planting: for example, a survey of 94 farmers in Kenya, three years after they had planted fodder shrubs, found only three who no longer had any shrubs. The real value of fodder shrubs lies in their profitability; and the key to the continuing uptake and expansion of this technology is the clear increase in milk production observed by farmers. Farmers consistently report an increase of around 1-2 litres/day; and this positive perception by the project's ultimate beneficiaries is an important aspect of the validation of the technology. Farmers also appreciate the fact that the shrubs require no extra land (they are grown along boundaries, pathways, and along soil conservation structures across the contour), little labour, and no capital. These perceptions were captured in studies conducted under R6549 in Uganda [1] and Tanzania [2]. A large majority of farmers in the Uganda study, as well as in an earlier one in Kenya [3], expanded their plantings of fodder shrubs over several years. The profitability of fodder shrubs is also reflected in the economic impact assessments [4] [5] carried out under R6549 (see also below).
Output 2 The effectiveness of the technology itself, of the strong extension network, and of the extension approaches developed under R6549 has been proved by the expansion of fodder shrub planting in the project's target areas. Uptake was closely monitored through careful record keeping by the project partners at the five sites where the project was active. This validation data applies to the smallholder dairy farmers in the project target areas. Land holdings are generally 1 ha or less and most farmers have 1-2 dairy cows or dairy goats. At the project sites where gender data is available (Western Kenya, Central Kenya and Uganda Lakeshore), the proportion of women planting fodder shrubs was 54%, 43% and 57% respectively. These data represent only the six areas within the target countries where R6549 was active. There is great scope for replicating the approaches we have developed in other parts of these countries and more widely across the region and in other parts of Africa. Output 3 The draft extension manual and DST, originally produced as two separate documents, were validated through a review workshop attended by extension professionals and researchers from the four target countries. This rigorous review resulted in the two documents being combined into one, and extensively re-written to simplify the language and make the presentation more attractive and easy to use. Output 4 A pilot scheme was set up under R6549 in central Kenya, during 2004-2005, to test whether the fodder shrub seed market could be developed by making seed available to farmers to purchase locally, initially at subsidised rates and in small packets. The high demand for seed sold in this way validated our advocacy of policy reforms to make this practice replicable across a wider area, through relaxation of licensing restrictions. Over forty vendors are now marketing fodder shrub seed and seedlings across Kenya, and in central Kenya alone they sold 783 kg of seed and 151,000 seedlings over a five month period. Where the Outputs were Validated: R6549 was active at six sites in four countries: Central and Western Kenya, SW Uganda, Uganda Lakeshore (Kampala peri-urban), northern Tanzania and Rwanda. In Rwanda, the project was active in several areas across the country: Byumba, Gisenyi, Kigali peri-urban, and Butare. Data on fodder shrub planting was collected regularly from 2002 to late 2005 by project partners at these sites. The fodder shrub technology which the project was promoting is targeted specifically at poor smallholder farmers with dairy cows or dairy goats, specifically (a) those who are moving from semi-extensive grazing and tethering feeding systems to zero grazing as land holdings get smaller, and (b) those who are acquiring improved dairy animals from NGOs (e.g. Heifer International, World Vision, Farm Africa, Send-a-Cow) and need additional fodder as a condition for receiving them. The greatest potential for fodder shrub promotion is in high potential, hillside and peri-urban production systems, corresponding to smallholder rainfed humid and smallholder rainfed highland farming systems. Who are the Users? The fodder shrub technology itself (Output 1) is being used by smallholder farmers to provide high-protein supplementary feed, mainly for dairy cows and goats. The shrubs are usually planted in otherwise under-utilised niches on the farm such as path sides, boundaries or along soil conservation structures. 500 shrubs provide enough supplementary feed for one crossbred dairy cow; a dairy goat needs about 100 shrubs. While fodder for ruminants is the main use of these species, across the region, there is a range of other locally important uses. These include feed for non-ruminants, in particular chickens and rabbits, which are important food sources for the very poor: fuelwood; bee forage; soil conservation structures; and stakes for climbing beans. The latter is particularly important in Rwanda and SW Uganda. A survey of fodder shrub promotion in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Rwanda, under R6549, identified 224 organisations which promote or have promoted fodder shrubs. These include community-based organisations, international and national NGOs, government organisations, and private companies. An analysis of the factors affecting the impact of fodder shrub extension, as perceived by the organisations themselves, showed that the most important factor was that fodder shrubs met farmers' needs. Other key factors were that the fodder shrubs were profitable, that effective extension approaches were used, and that partnerships with other organisations facilitated success. This reflects several of the aspects given emphasis in the extension methodology developed during the project (Output 2). The extension manual/DST (Output 3) was published in March 2006. Ten thousand copies were printed of which half have already been distributed. The book is targeted at extension providers, both managers and field staff. There has also been unexpectedly high demand from universities and agricultural colleges, and from the higher echelons of governments in the region, up to Permanent Secretary and ministerial level. The manual is also available online, both through the DFID R4D portal: http://www.research4development.info/SearchResearchDatabase.asp?OutputID=170899 and on the World Agroforestry Centre website: Where the outputs have been used: The demand for fodder shrubs continues to increase throughout the East African region, but at present adoption tends to be concentrated in areas where projects or organisations have focused on this technology. The highest rates of adoption are still in the Central Highlands of Kenya, where up to 20% of smallholders have planted fodder shrubs in some parts of the district. The geographical distribution of fodder shrub usage in Kenya and Uganda (2004-2005 figures) is shown in Maps 1 and 2 at the end of this document. Scale of Current Use: The first area in East Africa where the intensive use of calliandra and other fodder shrubs was promoted, during the mid-1990s, was Embu District in the Central Highlands of Kenya. At the time that Phase 2 was designed (2001) the popularity of calliandra had spread in Kenya from Embu to other parts of central Kenya [3] and its potential had been demonstrated by pockets of adoption in other parts of the region, including the Lake Victoria Basin (western Kenya and southern Uganda) and the area around Mt. Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania. The uptake of the technology in these areas, and in Rwanda, has spread both through the project's activities and through many other projects and programmes. A survey carried out in 2006 estimated that about 48,000 farmers have so far planted in Kenya, 33,000 in Uganda, 11,000 in Rwanda, and 8,000 in northern Tanzania. However, the number of smallholder dairy farmers using the technology is still a small fraction of those who could potentially benefit; the total recommendation domain for fodder shrubs is over two million smallholder dairy farmers in the East African region. The technology is also appropriate for farmers with improved breed dairy and meat goats, and for a range of other uses. Policy and Institutional Structures, and Key Components for Success: We have identified several key factors accounting for the success of fodder shrubs:
* Uganda Agroforestry Development Network
Lessons Learned and Uptake Pathways Promotion of Outputs: Fodder shrubs are being widely promoted in all four target countries, by a wide range of stakeholders. During 2005, ICRAF undertook a study [7] to estimate the total numbers of farmers planting fodder shrubs in the region. Estimated numbers of smallholder farmers planting in each of the four countries (figures updated as of 2006) are shown in Table 1. Data were also collected on the number and types of different organisations promoting fodder shrubs (Table 2).
Table 1. Estimates of numbers of farmers planting fodder shrubs in each country, 2006.
Table 2: Number of organisations promoting fodder shrubs in each country, 2006.
Potential Barriers Preventing Adoption of Outputs: There are three main constraints limiting adoption: 1. Availability of planting material. We encourage farmers to leave some trees unpruned, for seed production, and this will gradually increase the amount of seed locally available. However, in areas where the use of shrubs is being introduced, external seed sources are needed. A study of the calliandra seed market [8] under R6549 showed that most production of calliandra seed for sale in Kenya is in Western Province, while the greatest shortages are in Central Province. The development of a functioning market has been hampered by the tendency of extension providers to give seed to farmers for free. A second problem relating to the seed market in Kenya is that current phytosanitary laws require seed dealers to be licensed, and this is too expensive for local agricultural input stockists or dairy societies to become involved in the sale of tree seed. In practice, the regulations are not enforced with regard to seed vendors in the informal sector (e.g. seed associations), but seriously inhibit uptake by the formal sector (e.g. shops and input stockists).
2. Lack of knowledge about how to establish nurseries and plant and manage fodder shrubs. While the technology requires little labour and almost no land or capital, it is fairly "knowledge intensive" and does require skills that most extension staff and farmers do not have. 3. In some areas, poor access to milk markets limits the adoption of fodder shrubs. This is usually related to road access, but may also reflect local preferences, e.g. in northern Tanzania there is very little local market for milk, and it has to be sent to Dar-es-Salaam for sale. Even if a market is accessible, prices may be so low that the profitability of the dairy enterprise becomes marginal and there is no incentive to increase milk production. How to Overcome Barriers to Adoption of Outputs: With regard to seed, our efforts to facilitate the emergence of private seed vendors in central Kenya have succeeded, showing that a sustainable supply and distribution of seed focusing on the private sector is feasible. This model needs to be replicated in other areas where uptake of fodder shrubs is high. At the national policy level in Kenya there is a need to relax the licensing requirements for local seed stockists. This will help give many more farmers access to planting material. There is also a need to discourage projects from producing seed and distributing it freely, because this serves a disincentive to private sector seed producers and vendors. More effort is needed to build the capacity of trainers and farmers in establishing and managing fodder shrubs. The model promoted in this project, in which a single "dissemination facilitator" provided technical backstopping to many organizations in an area, was effective for promoting fodder shrubs. Milk marketing constraints need to be addressed at the national level, both by increasing access to markets through improvements to roads, and by policies aimed at increasing local demand, encouraging export markets and value addition through processing. Lessons Learned: The experience of R6549 was that the key to cost-effective scaling up was to focus our efforts on a range of different types of stakeholders who would themselves reach a large number of other people, giving a multiplier effect. This central concept could be applied at different levels, from extension providers to groups to individual farmers. By organising training workshops for extension partners working with smallholder dairy systems, a single dissemination facilitator can raise the profile of fodder shrubs on the development agendas of a wide range of stakeholder organisations, and provide accurate and appropriate information for them to incorporate in their own extension messages. At the farmer level, working with common interest groups is clearly more efficient than targeting individual farmers. More importantly, it gives access, by definition, to motivated and/or innovative individuals who are more likely to pass the message on to others. Given the shortage of resources available for conventional agricultural extension in Africa, particularly in national government systems, spontaneous farmer-to-farmer dissemination is a vital part of the scaling up process. A study in central Kenya under R6549 found that about half of farmers receiving inputs (seed, information) from extension providers disseminated planting material to other farmers, and, on average, each passed on planting material to six other farmers. Moreover, a very few "master farmer disseminators" were actually responsible for most of the farmer-to-farmer dissemination taking place. A follow-up R6549 study characterised these master disseminators and proposed that future dissemination efforts focus on identifying them and supporting their promotion efforts. In addition to effective targeting of dissemination activities, an enabling policy environment is crucial to successful promotion of fodder shrubs in East Africa. Our experience in Uganda, where governmental structures are highly decentralised, has been that advocacy at the local (district and sub-county) level has been very effective in mobilising support for fodder shrub promotion. More recently, our experience with the SCALE approach highlights the effectiveness of civil society campaigns as complements to more conventional extension programs. Religious leaders, the media (radio, TV, the press), private input suppliers, local government administrators, and dairy companies each have a critical role to play in sensitizing and training farmers about new practices such as fodder shrubs. The SCALE approach brings these various actors together into a unitary planning process, enhancing the synergy of their individual efforts. Poverty Impact Studies: Several different kinds of impact studies were conducted. Farmer workshops were conducted in central Kenya, southern and southwestern Uganda at which farmers specified the kinds of impacts they were experiencing from growing fodder shrubs [4]. Formal household surveys were also conducted in the same three areas in which respondents specified impacts from fodder shrubs [4] [5]. The costs and returns of growing and feeding calliandra to dairy cows was assessed in four areas: central Kenya [5], western Kenya [9] and southern and south-western Uganda [4] Koech et al. (2005) [9] provide a summary of cost-benefit analyses at four sites, two in Uganda and two in Rwanda. However, impact can only be assessed once fodder shrubs have been adopted and used for some time, because it takes two years from planting for them to reach their full production potential. These analyses therefore focused on farmers who had been using fodder shrubs for several years (i.e. since before the start of the scaling-up phase of R6549). [9] Koech, Mawanda, and Franzel, 2005. The profitability of using fodder shrubs to feed dairy cows in Kenya and Uganda. In: Franzel, S. The adoption and impact of fodder shrubs in East Africa. External Program and Management Review. ICRAF, Nairobi. Concurrently, during Phase 2 of R6549, fodder shrub uptake arising directly from the project's activities was regularly monitored in all six project areas: see (21). The potential impact directly attributable to R6549 can be estimated by applying the results of the impact studies to this data. How the Poor have Benefited (including gender and other poverty groups): The increase in milk production is typically around 1-2 litres/day for a crossbred dairy cow being supplemented with fodder shrubs at the recommended rate of 25% of the diet. This increase is realised within 1-2 weeks of starting to feed fodder shrubs. This increase is large enough to be clearly perceptible to farmers, and this has greatly contributed to the high levels of adoption of the technology. Increased milk production contributes, firstly, to the household's financiallivelihood assets. The economic impact assessments under R6549 found that farmers with 500 fodder shrubs could realise the profits shown in Table 3. In general, it is slightly more profitable to use fodder shrubs as a substitute for commercial concentrates (thereby saving on the purchase cost of these) than to use them simply as additional supplementation to the previous diet. Table 3: Annual increases in income for farmers with 500 fodder shrubs, at different locations and using different strategies
The increase in milk production translates into human as well as financial assets. Milk consumption in the home increases, particularly for children, with clear health benefits. The extra income is often used for school fees, another human livelihood asset, and for physicalassets such as improved water supply, sanitation or housing. In addition to their primary role of leaf production, fodder shrubs can have an important role in soil conservation, particularly in contour planting on steep slopes, and in this way contribute to the farmer's natural assets. The extension approach which we have used, with its emphasis on group approaches, contributes to farmers' social assets through development of wider and more effective networks of social interactions. Social capital can also be acquired through the status associated with a successful farm enterprise, and through becoming a disseminator of knowledge and planting material to other farmers. The principal beneficiaries have been the moderate poor. By definition, some land is needed to grow fodder shrubs, and most adopters also have one dairy cow or a few dairy goats (though some keep only rabbits or chickens, or have no animals but grow fodder to sell to other livestock keepers). In all the project areas there are significant numbers of female- and child-headed households, owing to the high incidence of HIV/AIDS and malaria. We do not have data on participation of children. As stated above, at the project sites where gender data is available (Western Kenya, Central Kenya and Uganda Lakeshore), the proportion of women planting fodder shrubs was 54%, 43% and 57% respectively.. The number of farmers who planted fodder shrubs during the implementation of R6549, and whose activities are directly attributable to the project outputs at each of the six project sites, is summarised in Table 4. Table 4: Fodder shrub planting directly attributable to R6549
The mean profitability of about $US100/year calculated from the economic impact assessment data assumed 500 fodder shrubs per farmer. The data on planting in Table 4 shows a mean of only 135 plants per farmer, but this is to be expected as we worked in areas with relatively little previous exposure to fodder shrubs, so uptake and adoption are still at an early stage. Nonetheless, the planting already in place translates to a mean profit of around $US25/farmer: a total of $US180,000/year across all the participating farmers. An increase of 1-2 litres of milk per day represents about 10-20% additional production. Direct and Indirect Environmental Benefits: Fodder shrubs contribute direct environment benefits in addition to their primary role of fodder production. As they are deep-rooting woody perennials, their roots have an important role in soil conservation. When managed for fodder in hedges planted across the contour of slopes, they can significantly reduce soil erosion. Moreover, most of the main fodder species are leguminous, and transfer nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere to the soil. Fodder cultivation can also reduce pressure on natural vegetation, and help to sustain biodiversity, by reducing the need to collect wild material from the 'bush'. Adverse Environmental Impacts: Shrubs are generally deeper-rooting than annual crops so there is little below-ground competition with most species. Mulberry, however, can compete adversely with crops so care is needed in choosing where to plant this species. Coping with the Effects of Climate Change, or Risk from Natural Disasters: There are two ways in which fodder shrubs can act as a buffer to the effects of climate change. Both relate to the increasingly erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns now being experienced in East Africa.
Relevant Research Projects,
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