Fussy eaters: improving the benefits of dry-season feed

A newly developed self-selection technique can boost the amount that stall-fed animals will eat. Sorghum stover is a traditional and important dry-season forage in countries like Ethiopia, Tanzania and Kenya. However, it isn't particularly nutritious or palatable - so animals often don't each as much as they should. Research has found, however, that giving animals much more stover than they need allows them to select the tastiest bits of feed. This means that they eat much more. Plus, the feed that they reject isn't wasted, because it can be treated with urea to make it more palatable and then fed to them again. Promoting this simple technique could make a real difference to the lives of smallholders who struggle to keep their animals healthy.

Project Ref: LPP06:
Topic: 2. Better Lives for Livestock Keepers: Improved Livestock & Fodder
Lead Organisation: Green, E. (Independent), UK
Source: Livestock Production Programme

Contents:		Description
		Validation
		Current Situation
		Lessons Learned
		Impacts On Poverty
		Environmental Impact
		Annex

Description

Research Programmes:

Livestock Production Programme

Relevant Research Projects:

R5188

Reading University (Prof Emyr Owen)

Institutional partners:

• Institute of Grassland and Environmental Research, Hurley, UK (Dr A.B. McAllan, Dr Irene Mueller-Harvey);
• International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) (now International Livestock Research Institute, ILRI), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Prof A.N.Said);
• Institute of Agricultural Research, Melkassa Station, Narzret, Ethiopia (Dr Y Kebede);
• Alemaya University of Agriculture at Debre Zeit and Hararghe, Ethiopia (Dr G Makonnen and Dr Mulat)

Research Outputs, Problems and Solutions:

Sorghum is a drought tolerant cereal and staple for humans in semi-arid areas, e.g. Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya. In sorghum (and maize & millet), each tonne of grain also generates three to four tonnes of fibrous crop residue, i.e. stover, but its feeding value is low.

R5188 commenced in 1990 with a socio-economic survey in Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopian Highlands. Farmers stressed the importance of sorghum stover as dry-season forage and the need for adoptable ways to improve feeding value. Farmers used traditional (white) varieties but complained about bird damage. Bird-resistant (pigmented) varieties had been developed but were little used - pigmented stover was considered even less palatable than normal. Stover stems were used for fuel and building.

Ten bird-resistant and five traditional cultivars of sorghum were grown at two sites (Highlands and Rift Valley) in 1990 and 1991. Grain yields varied (0.2-3.2 t DM/ha), with differences between cultivar, site and year. Grain yield of bird-resistant cultivars was more than twice that of traditional ones. Similarly, stover yields were highly variable (0.8-8.8 t DM/ha) with effects of cultivar, site and year, but there was no clear difference due to bird resistance. Stover feeding quality varied widely. The nutritious leaf plus sheath fractions of stover ranged from 0.23 to 0.62. Although there were differences due to variety, there was no clear relation between yield of stover and quality, nor between bird resistance and quality, except that bird-resistant cultivars had highest pigmentation (i.e. phenolic content) in the leaf sheath.

Leaf content of stover decreased after storing in a heap in the field for 16 weeks after harvesting, as is commonly practised. Stover when stored in a barn showed no deterioration. Storage did not affect phenolic content.

A 'Self Selection' stall-feeding strategy was developed in experiments at ILRI Debre Zeit. Cattle and sheep, when offered twice as much stover as they would eat, consumed more (see table) and grew faster because they were enabled to select the more nutritious leaf and sheath, and reject stem. Chopping improved intake in sheep, but not cattle.

With bird-resistant stover `Self Selection' enabled sheep to reject the pigmented sheath.

About half the stover (mainly stem) is rejected in `Self-Selection' stall-feeding. Rejected stover could be re-fed after ammoniation with urea (Methu,1998).

Types of Research Output:

Major Commodities Involved:

R5188 focused on improving sorghum stover for feeding ruminants (meat, milk, transport and draught animals).  However, 'Self Selection' and other methods of improving quality are potentially applicable to most other fibrous crop residues from cereals (maize and millet stover, straws from wheat, barley and oats). The potential application is therefore vast, throughout the developing world.

Production Systems:

Farming Systems:

Potential for Added Value:

R5188 focused on sorghum stover in Ethiopia, and demonstrated (1990-92) choice of cultivar, leaf stripping at 50% flowering stage, barn storage, `Self Selection' (for cattle and sheep) and chopping (sheep only) as methods of improving the stall-feed quality of crop residue.

Subsequent non-RNRRS research in Kenya (Methu, 1998, Annex 2, Reference 32), with maize stover, demonstrated that stover rejected (mainly stem) by cattle during 'Self Selection' could be improved by ammoniation via urea treatment, and then re-fed to cattle and other ruminants.

R6619 and R6610 demonstrated the usefulness of manual box baling for transport, storage and feed budgeting of maize stover and other dry forages.

Manual stripping of leaves and husk off maize stover and stall-feeding these more nutritious fractions were demonstrated in R6619.

R7351, R6610 and much other non-RNRRS research (e.g. reviewed by Buttery et al., 2005, Annex 2, Reference 23; Smith et al., 2005, Annex 2, Reference 56) demonstrated the importance of supplementing with protein and minerals when feeding crop residues.

Much added value to R5188 would be achieved by integrating the methods listed in above into a basket of technologies to offer smallholder farmers using RIU approaches such as those described in R7955.

In East Africa and Southern Africa, suggested clustering would be R5188, R6619, R7955 and R7351 (fibrous crop residues are deficient in available nutrients, particularly protein; R7351 involves a low-cost source of protein supplement).

'Self Selection' and other methods of improving crop residues (R5188) are relevant to 'Community based goat production in Kenya' (R7634) and also to 'Wambui' (R7425).

'Self Selection' and other methods of improving crop residues (R5188) are also likely to be relevant to the cluster 'Promotion of crop residues for fodder' (R8339, R7346, R8296) in India, to 'Smallholder dairying toolbox' (ZC0261) and to 'Small stock toolbox (ZC0243).

Validation

How the outputs were validated:

Leaf stripping at 50% flowering stage and stover storage experiments were undertaken on-station, using statistically valid designs.

Statistically valid and analysed stall-feeding experiments were undertaken on-station, with growing cattle and sheep, to develop 'Self Selection' and measure the effect of chopping sorghum stover.

The results of the experiments were validated by on-station researchers and academic examiners (PhD thesis by Osafo, 1993, Annex 1, Reference 1).

Validation by researcher peer group was extensive as evidenced by the large number of publications from R5188 in national and international conference proceedings and scientific journals (Annex 1, References 2-14). Conference presentations and scientific publications on methods of improving crop residues were also made on many occasions to researchers (Annex 2, References 26-28, 30-31, 33-39, 44, 49-54).

Prior to R5188, non-RNRRS, on-station research at ILRI by Aboud et al. (Annex 2, References 16-22) also validated the 'Self Selection' approach with sorghum stover stall-fed to goats and sheep.

Subsequent to R5188, validation of 'Self Selection' stall-feeding for maize stover was made by non-RNRRS, on-station research by Methu (Annex 2, Reference 32).  

The 'Self Selection' approach was also validated by researchers for improving the utilisation of sugar cane tops (Annex 2, Reference 43) and cut-and-carried tropical grass (Annex 2, References 59-66).

The 'Self Selection' strategy for stall-feeding sorghum stover developed in R5188 was deemed by FAO, in a manual for research workers (Preston, 1995, Annex 2, Reference 55), to be a novel and adoptable method of improving the feeding value of stovers and other fibrous crop residues.

However, the methods of validation, detailed above, all involved on-station experiments, and validation was largely by researchers and peer reviewed publications, not by end-user beneficiaries, i.e. resource-poor smallholder farmers.

Funding for R5188 totalled only £32,849 and did not include validation by end-user beneficiaries (cf. in 1990, when funding for this project was granted, there was little emphasis on end-user validation and dissemination).   

Where the Outputs were Validated:      

R5188 was executed in Ethiopia at ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Debre Zeit (Ethiopian Highlands), and IAR (Institute of Agricultural Research) Melkassa (Rift Valley) in 1990-93.

End-user beneficiaries were involved in problem identification, at the outset. As these were the early years of the programme. - project funding was limited to on-station research -  there was no funding to undertake validation by end users after undertaking the on-station research.

R5188 beneficiaries in Ethiopia were in Semi-arid production systems and would be Moderate Poor and some Extreme vulnerable poor.

It was envisaged that the output would be relevant to Semi-arid, High Potential and Peri-urban production systems in all DFID PSA countries (but especially Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Ghana, Nigeria, Zimbabwe) because of the importance of crop residues as dry-season stall-feed. 

The outputs were targeted at Smallholder Rainfed Highland and Smallholder Rainfed Dry/Cold farming systems.

Non-RNRRS researchers validated 'Self Selection' stall-feeding with maize stover at the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Muguga in 1995-97. The target beneficiaries were smallholder dairy farmers (Rainfed Highland) in High potential and Peri-urban systems.

Validation of R5188 by peer-group researchers in conference presentations occurred in UK (Annex 1, References 2-3, 5-8), Sweden (Annex 1, Reference 4), Canada (Annex 1, Reference 9), Uganda (Annex 1, Reference 10-11), Kenya (Annex 1, Reference 14).

Current Situation

Who are the Users?

Discussions in Nairobi, 2-4 October, 2006, involving collaborators from Ghana, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe and UK (R5188, R6619, R7955, R7798, R7424, R7351, R6954, ZC0289) concluded:

• Fibrous crop residues/stover are widely available, but inefficiently used by smallholders in dry-season stall-feeding
• Despite a large scientific literature, there is lack of awareness (by extensionists and farmers) of ways of improving crop residues for stall-feeding. This includes ignorance of 'Self Selection' in stall-feeding stover.
• 'Self Selection' stall-feeding is therefore not practised per se, but many farmers offer stover ad libitum to dairy cattle, and the material rejected (mainly stem) is offered to less productive livestock such as sheep or donkeys
• Unknowingly, farmers practise 'Self Selection' when they allow livestock to graze crop residues in the field, after harvesting the cereal. However, such grazing is wasteful because of trampling, but the soil benefits from direct application of manure 
• It is common to see large quantities of refusals on smallholder farms when stover is stall-fed
• The nutritive value of refusals could be markedly improved by ammoniation with urea (organic matter digestibility increases from 40%, untreated, to 50%, treated; also nitrogen content increased) and then re-fed. There is much scientific literature on upgrading crop residues by urea treatment (e.g. Annex 2, References 29, 32, 38-39, 46, 55-57)
• Demand for, and use of, methods of improving crop residues will increase as systems move from (current) subsistence to market oriented production. 252 words

Where the outputs have been used:

• Use of fibrous crop residues for stall-feeding during dry-season forage scarcity is occurring throughout the developing world, but the usage is generally inefficient.
• Methods of improving feeding quality, such as 'Self Selection', are not (consciously) practised.
• In many situations, when supplies of crop residues are limited (often due to not conserving because of problems of transport and storage, cf. R6619) the opposite to 'Self Selection' is practised in stall-feeding i.e. restricted amounts of stover are offered, making animals eat the poorer fractions.
• As indicated above, lack of awareness of technologies amongst extensionists and farmers is a contributory factor.
• But as also indicated above, the fact that production systems are generally subsistent rather than market oriented is likely to be an important underlying factor.
• These issues, particularly socio-economic aspects, need to be investigated as part of RIU.   

Policy and Institutional Structures, and Key Components for Success:

As explained abopve, R5188 was in the very early years of LPP (1990-93). The research was undertaken on-station and there was no funding for end-user/beneficiary evaluation and dissemination.

In 1997 an extension leaflet was produced (see Annex 1, Reference 15), for use by the LPP.

R5188 provided a platform for capacity strengthening for one of the collaborators (Osafo, PhD 1993, See Annex 1, Reference 1).  

R5188 also generated many research questions concerning utilisation of crop residues and forages which were addressed in subsequent Reading University PhD studies (Kitalyi, 1993, in Tanzania, Annex 2, Reference 25; Tanner, 1995, in Indonesia [NRI EMC X0183], Annex 2, Reference 58; Methu, 1998, in Kenya, Annex 2, Reference 32). 

Lessons Learned and Uptake Pathways

Promotion of Outputs:

As far as we know (collaborator meeting in Nairobi, Oct 2-4, 2006) no promotion of 'Self Selection' and other R5188 outputs is currently taking place.

Potential Barriers Preventing Adoption of Outputs:

As explained in 16, and in 12, 13 and 15, R5188 was an on-station research project, and did not have end-user/beneficiary validation and dissemination components. When R5188 was undertaken (1990-93), the emphasis was on research; there was no funding for components such as end-user/beneficiary validation and dissemination.

Current barriers to adoption are:

• Lack of end-user/beneficiary validation (especially socio-economic aspects) of 'Self Selection' output of R5188 with sorghum stover in Ethiopia, but also applies to maize stover in Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Ghana, Nigeria
• Lack of disseminating materials for extensions services and end-users
• In Kenya, the National Livestock Policy (Draft, February 2006, Section 3.5) (Annex 2, reference 41) recognises the need to improve disseminating facilities for research findings
• As indicated in 12 and 13, a general underlying barrier to adoption is that current production systems tend to be subsistent rather than market-orientated
• The increasing demand for milk and meat, now underway in developing countries (The Livestock Revolution, Delgado et al., 1999, Annex 2, reference 24), will require higher levels of productivity per individual animal. This will require better nutrition, and therefore the need for higher quality forages and improved crop residues.  

How to Overcome Barriers to Adoption of Outputs:

Production of disseminating material on improving crop residues, for trainers (lecturers, students, NGOs, extension services). A textbook (sequel to ZC0213 Annex 2, reference 54) is required covering fibrous crop residues and other locally available feeds, and feeding strategies for alleviating dry season forage shortages. As indicated above, there is a large scientific literature on improving crop residues - early research was reviewed in Sundstol and Owen (1984) (Annex 2, reference 57). There has been much more work since then in developing countries (although relatively little on socio-economic aspects), but the publications are scattered and need bringing together in one volume. The document Networking as a tool to disseminate information and training materials (incorporating R7798, ZC0289, ZC0305, ZC0213) has also suggested producing such a textbook.

There is need to have end-user/beneficiary validation of R5188 outputs such as 'Self Selection' and chopping, and also of supplementation and ammoniation (using urea) of rejected stems by smallholder farmers producing milk and meat in Ethiopia (using sorghum and maize stover), and in Kenya and Tanzania (using maize stover). Such validation would also include offering a "basket of technologies" (including box baling R6619 and supplementing e.g. R7351). This validation would also generate disseminating material, and use approaches to RIU described in Output E (e.g. training promotion partners, participatory dissemination) of R7955.

Lessons Learned:

If R5188 had been undertaken in the latter years of LPP, the project would have involved validation (including socio-economic evaluation) of the outputs by end-users/beneficiaries. The lessons learned in R7955 would also apply to R5188:

• Making better use of crop residues for dry-season stall feeding, if it could enhance livelihoods,  would have wide appeal to smallholders
• Offering a basket of technology options; promotion partners would select outputs for local dissemination and farmers would select according to need.

Impacts On Poverty

Poverty Impact Studies: 

To our knowledge, no impact studies on R5188 outputs have taken place in Ethiopia

Methu (1998) (Annex 2, Reference 32) calculated (based on his on-station research) that ammoniation using urea treatment of maize stover rejected in 'Self Selection' stall-feeding would by uneconomic in Kenya because of the high cost of urea. Cost-benefit analyses of urea treatment need to be undertaken by end-user validation studies.

Environmental Impact

Direct and Indirect Environmental Benefits:

Greater use of crop residues for animal feeding would reduce biomass burning in situations where residues are not used and considered a waste.

Improved livestock productivity resulting from application of R5188 would generate more manure and better quality manure (particularly if ammoniation via urea was involved, cf. Methu et al. 1997, Annex 2, References 32, 38, 39 ). The improved animal productivity would mean improved digestion and greater efficiency of energy utilisation resulting in less methane production per unit of product (milk or meat). 

Adverse Environmental Impacts:

In (exceptional) situations where crop residues are completely removed from crop land and land not manured (e.g. maize stover in northern Tanzania, cf. R6619) there is concern that soil organic matter content will decrease with increased risk of erosion. Stripping leaves from stover in the field and leaving the less digestible stem for soil incorporation would be a preferred strategy in such situations.

Treatment of refused stover with urea (40 kg/tonne) in 'Self Selection' stall-feeding would result in release of some ammonia (about 12 kg) to the atmosphere. This is small compared to the ammonia released during manure and fertiliser application.    

Coping with the Effects of Climate Change, or Risk from Natural Disasters:

Conserving crop residues by proper storing for subsequent use obviously increases the capacity of poor people to cope with forage shortages during dry-season droughts.

Future climate changes in Africa are likely to mean that more drought resistant cereals such as millet and sorghum are grown. The outputs of R5188 would be relevant to the crop residues of these cereals, as well as maize.

Annex

R5188 publications

1.            Osafo, E.L.K. 1993. Sorghum stover as a forage: cultivar effects on yield and effects of chopping, amount offered, supplementation and variety on intake, selection and live-weight gain in Ethiopian sheep and cattle. PhD Thesis, The University of Reading.

2.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Aboud, A.A.O., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and McAllan, A.B. 1991. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep: effect of chopping and amount offered on intake and selection. Animal Production, 52, 607.

3.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M., McAllan, A.B. and Sherington, J. 1992. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian, yearling cattle; effects of amount of stover offered and cottonseed cake supplement on intake and growth. Animal Production, 54, (3), 501.

4.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Aboud, A.A.O., Said, A.N., Gill, E.M. and McAllan, A. 1992. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep: effect of chopping and amount offered on growth, intake and selection. In: Lindberg, J.E. (ed), FAO Network of Cooperative Research on sheep and goats; Proceedings of the Meeting of the Subnetwork Nutrition, Ostersund, Sweden. Uppsala: Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Report 215, 52.

5.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M., McAllan, A.B. and Kabede, Y. 1993. Sorghum stover as ruminant feed in Ethiopia: effect of cultivar, site of growth, pre-harvest leaf stripping and storage on yield and morphology. In: Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (ed.) Animal Production in Developing Countries. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication No 16, 188-189.

6.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and McAllan, A.B. 1993. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep and cattle: effect of chopping and amount offered on intake and selection. In: Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (ed.) Animal Production in Developing Countries. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication No 16, 204-205.

7.            Khazaal, K., Mueller-Harvey, I., McAllan, A.B., Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E. and Said, A.N. 1993. Effect of harvesting at different stages of growth and long term storage on phenolics in sorghum stover. In: Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (ed.) Animal Production in Developing Countries. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication No 16, 210-21

8.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M., McAllan, A.B. and Sherington, J. 1993. Feeding chopped sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep: effects of sorghum variety and amount offered on intake, digestibility and live-weight change. Animal Production, 56, (3), 470.

9.            Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M., McAllan, A.B. and Sherington, J. 1993. Use of chopped sorghum stover as feed for Ethiopian sheep: effects of sorghum variety and amount offered on intake, digestibility and live weight change. In Proceedings V11 World Conference on Animal Production, Edmonton, Canada. Volume 3, Abstract 253, 53-54.

10.        Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and Sherington, J. 1994. The effect of variety of chopped sorghum stover and amount offered on intake, weight-change and digestibility in sheep. In: Programme and Abstracts of the Third Small Ruminant Research Network (SRNET) Biennial Conference, Uganda International Conference Centre, Kampala, Uganda, 5-9 December 1994, 19.

11.        Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M., and Sherington, J. 1996. The effect of variety and amount offered of chopped sorghum stover on the performance of sheep. In: Lebbie, S.H.B. and Kagwin, E. (ed.) Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa. Proceedings of the African Small Ruminant Research Network, UICC, Kampala, Uganda 1994. ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute), Nairobi, Kenya, 177-182.

12.        Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and Sherington, J. 1997. Effects of amount offered and chopping on intake and selection of sorghum stover by Ethiopian sheep and cattle. Animal Science, 65, 55-62.

13.        Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Methu, J., Abate, A., Tanner, J.C. and Aboud, A.A.O. 1996. Excess feeding of stovers from sorghum and maize for small ruminants and cattle in cereal based integrated farming systems in Africa. In: Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds Livestock Feed Resources Within Integrated Farming Systems. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 1996, 17th paper.

14.        Osafo, E.L.K., Owen, E., Ellis, R.H., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and Sherington, J. 1998. Stability of yields of sorghum genotypes: implications for animal production in the tropics. International Conference, Food, Lands and Livelihoods: Setting Research Agendas for Animal Science, organised by the British Society of Animal Science and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute held in Nairobi 27-30 January 1998.

15.        Owen, E. and Osafo, E.L.K. 1997. Feed sorghum stover (stalks) to cattle, sheep and goats. Livestock Research Extension Note 1. Livestock Production Programme, Chatham, Natural Resources International Limited.

ANNEX 2

OTHER REFERENCES

16.        Aboud, A.A.O. 1991. Strategies for utilization of sorghum stover as feed for cattle, sheep and goats. PhD Thesis, The University of Reading.

17.        Aboud, A.A.O., Owen, E., Reed, J.D. and McAllan, A.B. 1990. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep: effect of stover variety and amount offered on growth, intake and selection. Animal Production, 50, 1990, 593.

18.        Aboud, A.A.O, Owen, E, Reed, J.D., Said, A.N. and McAllan, A.B. 1991. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep and goats: effect of amount offered on growth, intake and selection. Animal Production, 52, 607.

19.        Aboud, A.A.O., Owen, E., Reed, J.D., Said, A.N. and McAllan, A.B. Intake of sorghum stover by goats and sheep: effect of amount offered on growth, intake and selection. In: Lokeshwar, R.R. (ed.) Recent Advances in Goat Production. Proceedings of and papers presented at V International Conference on Goats held in New Delhi. New Delhi: V International Conference on Goats, 791-793.

20.        Aboud, A.A.O., Owen, E., Said, A.N., Gill, M. and McAllan, A.B. 1993. Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian goats and sheep: effect of amount offered on intake, selection and performance. In: Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (ed.) Animal Production in Developing Countries. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication No 16, 202-203.

21.        Aboud, A.A.O., Owen, E., Reed, J.D. and Said, A.N. 1994. Influence of stover variety and level of offer on voluntary intake, feed selectivity and growth performance of Ethiopian rams: perspectives on practical problems. Tanzania Society of Animal Production Conference Series, 19 (1992), 86-93.

22.        Aboud, A.A.O., Owen, E., Reed, J.D. and Said, A.N. Influence of amount of feed offered on growth, intake and selectivity: observations on sheep and goats. In: Lebbie, S.H.B., Rey, B. and Irungu, E.K.(ed.) 1993. Small Ruminant Research and Development in Africa. Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference of the African Small Ruminant Research Network, AICC, Arusha, Tanzania, 7-11 December 1992. ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa)/CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co-operation). Addis Ababa, ILCA, 1994, 157-162.

23.        Buttery, P., Max, R., Kimambo, A.and Ku-Vera, J.A. 2005. Animal responses to nutrient supply. Chapter 10 in: Livestock and wealth creation - improving the husbandry of animals kept by resource-poor people in developing countries (ed. E. Owen, A. Kitalyi, N. Jayasuriya and T. Smith), commissioned by DFID-LPP, published by Nottingham University Press, Thrumpton, Nottingham, pp 167-189.

24.        Delgado, C., Rosegrant, M., Steinfeld, H., Ehui, S. and Courbois, C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: the next food revolution. Food, Agriculture, and the Environment Discussion Paper No. 28, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington D.C., USA.

25.        Kitalyi, A.J. 1993. Sorghum stover and lablab bean haulm for dry-season feeding of lactating cattle in semi-arid central Tanzania. PhD Thesis, The University of Reading.

26.        Kitalyi, A.J. and Owen, E. 1993. Sorghum stover and lab lab bean haulm as feeds for lactating cattle in the agro-pastoral system in Central Tanzania. In: Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (ed.) Animal Production in Developing Countries. British Society of Animal Production Occasional Publication No 16, 1993, 170-171.

27.        Kitalyi, A.J., Owen, E. and Mtenga, L.A. 1993. Effect of field storage on quantity and quality of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moech) stover and lab lab (Lablab purpureus (L) Sweet) haulm. Animal Production, 56, (3), 469.

28.        Kitalyi, A.J. and Owen, E. 1998. Lablab bean haulm in cut-and-carry feeding systems in semi-arid central Tanzania. Proceedings of the Tanzanian Society of Animal Production, 1998, Abstract 1.

29.        Manyuchi, B., Mikayiri, S. and Smith, T. 1994. Effect of treating or supplementing maize stover with urea on its utilisation as feed for sheep and cattle. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 49, ½, 11-23.

30.        Massawe, N.F., Owen, E., Mtenga, L.A., Romney, D.L., Ashley, S.D. and Holden, S.J. 1998. Stripping of leaf, sheath and husks combined with manual box baling as a strategy towards efficient and economical use of maize stover. Proceedings of the Tanzanian Society of Animal Production, 1998, Abstract 31.

31.        Massawe, N.F., Owen, E. and Mtenga, L.A. 2002. Involving farmers in research technology development. In: Smith, T., Godfrey, S.H., Buttery, P.J. and Owen, E., (ed.). Helping smallstock keepers enhance their livelihoods: improving management of smallholder owned sheep and goats by utilising local resources: Proceedings of the Second DFID Livestock Production Programme Link Project (R7798) Workshop for smallstock keepers. Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania. 8-10 January 2002. Aylesford, Kent, Natural Resources Institute Ltd, 2002, ISBN: 09539274-4-x, p 125-131.

32.        Methu, J.N. 1998. Strategies for utilisation of maize stover and thinnings as dry season feed for dairy cows in Kenya. PhD Thesis, The University of Reading.

33.        Methu, J.N., Owen, E., Tanner, J.C., Abate, A.L. 2001. The effects of increasing planting density and thinning on forage and grain yield of maize in Kenyan smallholdings. Tropical Science 41, 68-73.

34.        Methu J.N., Owen E., Abate A.L. and Tanner J.C. 2001. Botanical and nutritional composition of maize stover, intakes and feed selection by dairy cattle.  Livestock Production Science 71, 87-96.

35.        Methu, J.N., Owen, E., Abate, A., Mwangi, D.M. and Tanner, J.C. 1996. Smallholder dairying in central Kenya highlands: practices in the utilization of maize stover as a feed resource. In: P.O. Fungoh and G.C.O. Mbadi (ed.), Focus on Agricultural Research for Sustainable Development in Changing Economic Environment. Proceedings of the 5th KARI Scientific Conference. Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1996, 243-251.

36.        Methu, J.N., Owen, E. and Abate, A. 1997. Effect of level of offer of maize stover on the performance of lactating dairy cows. Proceedings of the 23rd Scientific Conference Tanzania Society of Animal Production 23 (1996), 32-41.

37.        Methu, J.N., Owen, E., Abate, A., Scarr, M. and Tanner, J.C.1997. Effect of offering three amounts of maize stover to dairy cows on intake and selection. Proceedings of the British Society of Animal Science, 1997, 85.

38.        Methu, J.N., Owen, E., Abate, A., Tanner, J.C. and Scarr, M.J. 1998. Urea treatment of maize stover for dairy cattle. International Conference, Food, Lands and Livelihoods: Setting Research Agendas for Animal Science, organised by the British Society of Animal Science and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute held in Nairobi 27-30 January 1998.

39.        Methu, J.N., Tanner, J.C., Owen, E. and Lekasi, J.K. 1998. Decomposition in the soil, of different botanical fractions of maize stover, treated with urine and/or urea. International Conference, Food, Lands and Livelihoods: Setting Research Agendas for Animal Science, organised by the British Society of Animal Science and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute held in Nairobi 27-30 January 1998.

40.        Ministry of Livestock Development. 2006. National Livestock Policy (Final Draft), May 2006. The United Republic of Tanzania, Ministry of Livestock Development.

41.        Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development. 2006. Draft National Livestock Policy. By the Technical Working Group. Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, February 2006.

42.        Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development. 2006. Draft Dairy Policy 2006. Towards a Competitive and Sustainable Dairy Industry for Economic Growth in the 21st Century and beyond. Republic of Kenya, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development, March 2006.

43.        Owen, E. 1989. Improving forage quality: sugarcane tops. In: Bodoo, A.A., Ma Poon, L.K., Rajkomar, B., Rowe, J.B., Dolberg, F. and Hulman, B. (ed.) Milk and Beef Production in Mauritius: Proceeding of a seminar in Reduit, June 7-8, 1988. Mauritius: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Natural Resources, and The United Nations Development Programme, 1989, 61-65.

44.        Owen, E. 1994. Cereal crop residues as feed for goats and sheep. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 6, 47-61.

45.        Owen, E. and Aboud, A.A.O. 1988. Practical problems of feeding crop residues. In: Reed, J.D., Capper, B.S. and Neate, P.J.H. (ed.) Plant Breeding and Nutritive Value of Crop Residues. Addis Ababa: International Livestock Centre for Africa, 1988, 133-157.

46.        Owen, E. and Jayasuriya, M.C.N. 1989. Recent developments in chemical treatment of roughages and their relevance to animal production in developing countries. In: Feeding Strategies for Improving Productivity of Ruminant Livestock in Developing Countries. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1989, 205-230.

47.        Owen, E. and Jayasuriya, M.C.N. 1989. Use of crop residue as animal feeds in developing countries. A Review. Research and Development in Agriculture, 6, (3), 129-138.

48.        Owen, E., Wahed, R.A., Alimon, R. and El Naiem, W. 1989. Strategies for feeding straw to small ruminants: upgrading or generous feeding to allow selective feeding. In: Said, A.N. and Dzowala, B.H. (ed.) Overcoming Constraints to the Efficient Utilization of Agricultural By-products. Proceedings of the fourth Annual Workshop, African Research Network for Agricultural By-products (ARNAB). Addis Ababa: International Livestock Centre for Africa, 1989, 1-21.

49.        Owen, E. and Velasquez, J.E. 1992. A "Grazing" approach to stall-feeding crop residues and other low-quality forages to ruminants. In: Teixeira, J.C. and Neiva, R.S. (ed.) Anais do Simposio Internacional de Ruminantes. Lavras MG: Reuniao Anual de Sociedada Brasileira de Zootecnia, 65-85.

50.        Owen, E., Odoi, F.N.A. and Osafo, E.L.K. 1993. Practical approaches to feeding straw. In: Proceedings of 3rd International Conference "Straw 93 - a valuable raw material", Cirencester. Leatherhead: Paper Industry Research Association International, 2(a), 1993, Paper 27.

51.        Owen, E. 1993. Cereal crop residues as feed for goats and sheep. In Tingshuan, G., Yanglian, F., Jianxin, L., Jiaqui, W. and Zhishan, Z. (ed.) Increasing Livestock Production Through Utilization of Local Resources - Proceedings of the International Conference, Beijing. Beijing 100026, 11 Nongzhanguan Nanli: Bureau of Animal Production and Health, Ministry of Agriculture China, 1993, 360-372.

52.        Owen, E. 1994. Recent approaches to increasing the intake and digestibility of cereal straws as feed for ruminants. In: Agricultural and Food-Industrial By Products Utilisation. International Round-Table Discussion No 3052. Debrecen Agricultural University, Hungary, 29 September. Abstract.

53.        Owen, E. 1995. The practicality of using straw and treated straw as forage in sheep and goat systems. In: van Arendonk, J.A.M., Aumaitre, A., Croston, D., Dempfle, L., Ducrocq, V., van der Honing, Y., Langlois, B, Peters, K., Pollott, G.E., Rafai, P. and Thomas, C.(ed.). Book of Abstracts of the 46th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Animal Production, Prague, Czech Republic, 4-7 September 1995. Wageningen Pers, Wageningen, 234.

54.        Owen, E., Kitalyi, A., Jayasuriya, N. and Smith, T. (ed.). 2005. Livestock and wealth creation. Improving the husbandry of animals kept by resource-poor people in developing countries. Commissioned by DFID Livestock Production Programme, published by Nottingham University Press, Thrumpton, Nottingham.

55.        Preston, T.R. 1995. Feed resources for ruminants Chapter 6 [See page 110 "Strategies for making better use of fibrous crop residues - Self Selection - Offer twice the expected intake" .."and ammonification with urea 5% urea in straw DM 30-50% water."  ]. Also Technologies for improving the use of renewable natural resources Chapter 7 [See page 144, "High offer level of feeding"]. In Tropical Animal Feeding - A manual for research workers. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper 126, FAO, Rome.

56.        Smith, T., Jayasuriya, N., Mlambo, V., Lekule, F., Thomas, D., Owen, E., Pearson, A. and Titterton, M. 2005. Feeds and feeding to improve productivity and survival. Chapter 11 in: Livestock and wealth creation - improving the husbandry of animals kept by resource-poor people in developing countries (ed. E. Owen, A. Kitalyi, N. Jayasuriya and T. Smith), commissioned by DFID-LPP, published by Nottingham University Press, Thrumpton, Nottingham, pp 191-213.

57.        Sundstol, F. and Owen, E. (ed.). 1984. Straw and other fibrous by-products as feed. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

58.        Tanner, J.C. 1995. Cut-and-carry feeding indigenous forage for sheep and manure-compost production on Java. PhD Thesis, The University of Reading.

59.        Tanner, J.C., Holden, S.J., Owen, E., Winugroho, M., Gill, M.2001.Livestock sustaining intensive smallholder crop production through traditional feeding practices for generating high quality manure-compost in upland Java.Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 84,21-30.

60.        Tanner, J.C., Owen, E., Winugroho, M. and Gill, M. 1993. Cut-and-carry feeding of indigenous grasses in Indonesian smallholder sheep production: effect of amount offered on intake and growth, and on output of compost made from refusals and excreta. Animal Production, 56, (3), 449.

61.        Tanner, J.C., Owen, E., Winugroho, M. and Gill, M. 1993. Cut and carry feeding of indigenous grasses in Indonesian smallholder sheep production. In: Proceedings V11 World Conference on Animal Production Edmonton, Canada, Volume 3. Abstract 277, 102-103.

62.        Tanner, J.C., Owen, E., Winugroho, H.M. and Gill, M. 1994. Cut-and-carry feeding of indigenous grass in Indonesian sheep production: effect of amounts of grass and rice bran offered on grass intake and on yield of compost made from refusals and excreta. Animal Production, 58, (3), 460.

63.        Tanner, J.C., Holden, S.J., Owen, E. and Gill, M. 1995. Feeding livestock for compost production: a strategy for sustainable upland agriculture on Java. In: Powell, J.M., Fernandez-Rivera, S., Williams, T.O., & Renard, C. (ed.) Livestock and Sustainable Nutrient Cycling in Mixed Farming Systems of sub-Saharan Africa. Volume II: Technical Papers. Proceedings of an International Conference held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 22-26 November 1993. ILCA (International Livestock Centre for Africa), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 115-128.

64.        Tanner, J.C., Owen, E., Winugroho, H.M. and Gill, M. 1995. Cut-and-carry feeding of indigenous grass in Indonesian sheep production: effect of amount of grass offered and wilting on intake and yield of compost. Animal Science, 60, (3), 533.

65.        Tanner, J.C. Owen, E., Winugroho, H.M. and Gill, M. 1995. Cut-and-carry feeding of indigenous grass in Indonesian sheep production: effect of amount of grass offered and wilting on intake and yield of compost. Proceedings of The Congress Conference, World Sheep and Wool Congress, Malvern 31 July - 2nd August 1995.

66.        Tanner, J.C., Owen, E., Winugroho, M. and Gill, M. 1996. Ruminant feeding strategies for sustainable agricultural production in upland mixed-farming systems of Indonesia. In: Second FAO Electronic Conference on Tropical Feeds Livestock Feed Resources within Integrated Farming Systems. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, 1996, 19th paper.

Relevant Research Projects, with links to the
Research for Development (R4D) web site
and Technical Reports:

R4D	Project Title		Technical Report
R5188	Improving the use of sorghum stover as ruminant feed in Ethiopia
	Chapters in: Animal Production in Developing Countries. Gill, M., Owen, E., Pollott, G.E. and Lawrence, T.L.J. (Eds.), 1994.
	Sorghum stover as ruminant feed in Ethiopia: effect of cultivar, site of growth, pre-harvest leaf stripping and storage on yield and morphology.
	Feeding sorghum stover to Ethiopian sheep and cattle: effect of chopping and amount offered on intake and selection.
R6610	Introduction of fodder legumes into rice-based cropping systems and their use as supplements in straw-based rations for dairy cattle in Bangladesh
R6619	Husbandry strategies for improving the sustainable utilisation of forages to increase profitable milk production from cows and goats on smallholder farms in Tanzania.
		Box-Baling Forage Improves Profitability of Smallholder Milk Producers
		Box baling: Cut costs of feeding stover
R7346	Evaluation of the effects of plant diseases on the yield and nutritive value of crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau in India
R7351	Increasing the productivity in smallholder owned goats on Acacia Thornveld
	Alleviating seasonal nutrient fluctuations in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe: potential for tree fruits as protein supplements for goats
	Dichrostachys cinerea pods as a protein supplement for goats fed on hay based diets
	Acacia and other tree pods as dry season feed supplments for goats
R7425	Development, validation and promotion of appropriate extension messages and dissemination pathways
	Project Summary and Introduction
	The Wambui Series of Cartoon Booklets: Clean Hands, Clean Milk Tethered Goats, Less Work Good Calf, Good Cow Better Manure, Better Crops Healthy Cow, More Milk Healthy Sheep Pay the Medical Bills Donkey Work Made Easy Healthy Pig, Healthy Profit Sungura in the Shamba Bees for Wealth and Health
R7955	Strategies for feeding smallholder dairy cattle in intensive maize forage production systems and implications for integrated pest management. Main Report. Extensions.
R8296	Promotion of sustainable approaches for the management of root-knot nematodes on vegetables in Kenya. Main Report. Annex 1, Annex 2, Annex 4, Annex 5, Annex 6, Annex 7a, Annex 7c.
R8339	Evaluation of the effects of plant diseases on the yield and nutritive value of crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau in India
ZC0243	Development of a toolbox on smallstock (www.smallstock.info)
	Smallstock in Development, a toolbox (www.smallstock.info)
ZC0261	Development of a Dairy Toolbox. See Smallholder Dairy Toolbox web site at http://www.dairytoolbox.net

For relevant research projects, with links to further information

Geographical regions included:

Ethiopia, Kenya,

Target Audiences for this content:

Livestock farmers,