One rice doesn't fit all in Nepal

One type doesn't fit all when it comes to rice varieties for the huge diversity of physical and socio-economic environments in Nepal. But by putting customers - rice farmers' first, varieties that match a range of needs can be produced rapidly. The term 'client-oriented breeding' means that farmers select strains specifically for the particular environments in which they live. Using these methods, the Nepalese farmers saw tremendous increases in productivity over the old varieties. Many farmers in many districts are now using the varieties selected by this process and several community groups across the country are also producing and distributing seed. The area planted to the new varieties is expanding two- to three-fold a year and there is huge potential for further expansion.

Project Ref: PSP13:
Topic: 1. Improving Farmers Livelihoods: Better Crops, Systems & Pest Management
Lead Organisation: LI-BIRD, Nepal
Source: Plant Sciences Programme

Contents:		Description
		Validation
		Current Situation
		Lessons Learned
		Impacts On Poverty
		Environmental Impact
		Annex

Description

Research Programmes:

R7122, R8071

• Local Initiatives for Biodiversity Research and Development (LI-BIRD).
• CAZS-Natural Resources, UK.
• National Rice Research Programme (NRRP), Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)
• Forum for Rural Welfare and Agricultural Reform for Development (FORWARD)
• District Agriculture and Development Offices (DADOs) of the Department of Agriculture (DOA)

Rice for Chaite (spring season): Judi 572, Judi 582, Judi 565, Judi 567; for upland main season: Barkhe 1027, Sugandha 1, Judi 572, Judi 582, Judi 565, Judi 567; for medium land main season: Barkhe 2014, Barkhe 2024, Sunaulo Sugandha; lowland main season: Barkhe 3004, Barkhe 3019, Super 3004

Output proposed: Using novel client-oriented breeding (COB) methods we identified, developed, tested, and promoted, on a limited scale, several main season and spring (Chaite) season rice varieties for Nepal in diverse rice ecosystems and socio-economic environments. Client-oriented breeding (COB) is a participatory breeding approach to generate new crop varieties with farmers which overcomes the limitations of traditional plant breeding which is oriented towards selection for high on-station yield (Witcombe et al., 2005).  The varieties are tested with farmers using participatory varietal selection (PVS) and are adapted to all seasons and all of the low-altitude rice environments in Nepal (Table 1 / Figure 1). In addition, there are several other promising lines being evaluated in disease screening nurseries, organoleptic assessments, multi-locational yield trials, PVS-mother and baby trials.

• These varieties are high yielding; have better eating quality, drought tolerant, do not lodge, have multiple insect and disease resistance and are adapted to low nitrogen conditions.
• Sunaulo Sugandha (Sugandha 2002) has an exceptional combination of high yield with aroma and currently is the best available improved aromatic variety. Sugandha 1 is also aromatic and drought tolerant. NRRP has not yet released an aromatic variety.
• Recently released variety Barkhe 3004 has a yield advantage of 23% over the best locally available alternative, Masuli (Annex 1 & 2) with better economic return (Gyawali et al., 2006).
• In addition to other traits, the yield advantage of COB varieties is 7 - 45% (Table 2) with strong preferences by farmers for many traits (Annex 3, 4 and 5).

Fig. 1. The rice continuum in the rainfed lowlands in Nepal using IRRI
and local names and the adaptation of the new rice varieties to niches in this continuum.

Table 1. Summary of the new rice varieties produced by COB for Nepal.

†Tested in Bangladesh and India, SDRL =Semi-deep rainfed lowland, MRL = Medium rainfed lowland, 

When produced: The PSP research only began in 1997 and the first varieties from the programme were produced by 2000. The products of COB were more widely tested from about 2002. Barkhe 3004 was the first variety released from COB in 2006.

Problem addressed and description of outputs: Baseline data (Rana et al., 2004) showed a great lack of varietal diversity. Varieties such as CH 45 in the Chaite season and Masuli in the main season were over 25 years old and vulnerable to pests and diseases. Masuli was occupying nearly 80% of the rice area in Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts (Fig. 2). Varietal diversity in Chaite rice was very narrow (Witcombe et al., 2001). Though more varieties were grown in main-season rice, the diversity was again low when weighted by the area occupied by each variety (Joshi and Witcombe, 2000).

Fig. 2. Varietal diversity in two districts of the Terai. From a survey in 1997

There is a great diversity in physical and socio-economic environments within and between high potential production systems (HPPSs) but blanket recommendations of technologies did not match this diversity, greatly reducing overall productivity (Witcombe, 1999; Witcombe et al., 2001; Warner et al, 1999). COB provided a means of rapidly producing better rice varieties that match the diversity of environments found in the Terai.

Types of Research Output:

Major Commodities Involved:

This output (rice varieties produced from COB) is related directly only to rice. However many of the shorter duration varieties facilitate timely planting of a post-rainy season legume or wheat crop (see PSP35). The process of COB can be applied to any crop (see PSP34).

Production Systems:

Farming Systems:

Potential for Added Value:  

COB rice in Nepal generated a large number of promising rice varieties for main and Chaite season rice suitable for Nepal as well as for India (PSP10) and Bangladesh (PSP12). COB and PVS involve farmers testing varieties on their own fields under their customary agronomic practices and this can be combined with testing many other interventions involving crop protection, community-based seed production (PSP36) and improved agronomic practices (PSP25 and PSP35).

It can be combined with outputs from other RNRRS themes:

• CPP, Cost effective weed management packages for lowland rice in Bangladesh, R8412, R8234, R7471
• CPP, Extension and promotion of rodent technologies in rice-based systems, R8424, R8164
• CPP, Good seed initiative, R8480
• CPP, Linking demand with supply of agricultural information, R8429, R8281
• CPP, Managing rice pests in Bangladesh by improving extension service information management for policy and planning, R8447
• CPP, Rice sheath blight complex, R7778
• CPP, Weed management in irrigated rice, R8409, R8233, R7377
• NRSP, Participatory Technology Development, R7412

Validation

COB varieties were bred in a single location in Nepal (in Chitwan) but tested and disseminated much more widely on a much larger scale throughout the Terai and low-altitude areas of Nepal. All the COB varieties in Table 1 were further validated through scaling up through community-based seed production (CBSP). 

Who validated: Validation was done by farmers working with researchers from many organisations involved in the validation process in Nepal (Devkota et al., 2006).

1. LI-BIRD
2. CAZS-NR
3. NRRP, and other NARC stations
4. 31 DADOs (21 Terai and 10 midhill districts). See also uptake and promotion pathways.
5. Three NGOs: FORWARD, SUPPORT Foundation and CDRC
6. 10 Community Based Seed Producers Groups
7. Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
8. Several CBOs and Agrovets and individual farmers from different parts of the country

These are also validated and promoted in India and Bangladesh (see PSP documents PSP10 and PSP12).  

The target groups of male and female farmers were from all social groups representing resource rich, medium and poor farmers, identified through local key informants using key proxies for wealth such as landholding size.

Evaluation of PVS trials included participating farmers (with a representative proportion of women) and their neighbours, relatives and friends (this always included some women). The evaluation of the post-harvest traits always involved women. 

Increases in productivity: Tremendous increases in productivity were achieved over the local cultivars (see Table 2). There is improvement in traits other than grain yield. For example, earlier maturity, better lodging resistance, higher straw yield, increased drought tolerance, and better grain and cooking quality resulting in a higher market price.

Table 2. Examples of yield increase of new varieties given in PVS trials

^§ For first dates of evaluating thesevarieties in PVS trials, the rice ecosystem/s and the season/s see Table 1.

Most validation has been done in rice-based farming systems in the low-altitude regions of Nepal (the Terai) in the rice continuum from upland to semi-deep lowland (Fig. 3). Some of the varieties have been tested in low hill region of Gorkha, Lamjung, Tanahun, Palpa and Syangja districts and varieties where Barkhe 2014, Barkhe 3017, Barkhe 1006, Barkhe 1027, Sugandha 1 and some of the Judi lines were preferred and adopted by farmers.

Fig. 3. Where and when (year of first entry) the activities have taken place.

Hundreds of male and female farmers from all social categories have been involved in this validation, particularly at the scaling up stage. The work has been done in all districts of the Nepal Terai that, contrary to what might seem to be a reasonable assumption, include some of the poorest in Nepal.

The UN has compiled a poverty and deprivation index for each district of Nepal. The all-Nepal index and that for the Terai are the same (0.47) on a scale of 0 for least developed to 1 for most developed. This average development in the Terai is only because a few districts are highly developed (Fig. 4). Of the 20 Terai districts, 14 are average or below average in development. Rautahat, the poorest district in the Terai has a population of over 500,000 and is the fourth poorest district in Nepal. Several population groups in the Terai, including the Tharus and Musahars, have been disadvantaged for generations and remain so. Moreover, the improvement in the human development index from 1996 to 2000 in the Terai as a whole (12%) was lower than in the hills (18%).

Fig. 4.        Poverty and deprivation index ranks for the Terai districts, 2001
(1 = least developed district, 75 = most developed district)

Current Situation

Many farmers from various districts of Nepal (e. g. Table 3) are using the new varieties (see "Scale of current use") to increase their rice productivity. In July 2006, Barkhe 3004 was officially released and seed of this and several other promising varieties are being produced and distributed by the community-based seed producers groups across the country in Nepal. Barkhe 3004 is a high-yielding medium-grain variety suitable for long standing water condition. Farmers in Bara, Prasha and Rautahat districts (with the highest poverty index) prefer this very much as the majority of rice growing area is rainfed lowland. In the Western region of Nepal, there are more drought-prone areas and farmers are using Sugandha 1 and Barkhe 1027 for their drought tolerance and early maturity. Similarly, other COB varieties were adopted and used by the farming communities in several districts to suit to their production environments.

Table 3.  Current use of COB variety and reason for adoption in Nepal

†data based on monitoring reports and personal communication with DADOs of respective districts

See Figures 3 and 4 above. In Nepal, all the varieties are adapted to the rice growing areas in the Terai and low hills but the adaptation to altitude differs (Table 4). The Terai makes up the vast majority of the rice growing area in Nepal and covers the rainfed lowland ecosystem from shallow unbunded fields to semi-deep rainfed lowlands.

Table 4. Geographical region where COB varieties are being scaled up

We estimate usage is increasing in area at least two to three fold a year (and even more in terms of numbers of users), but current use is far below the potential adoption ceiling. Most of the varieties are yet to be officially released and widely taken up by the government and other agencies. Currently, the organised sector (government and private sectors) are supplying less than 5% of the total rice seed needed (Baniya et al., 2000).  Community-based seed producer groups have initiated production of substantial quantities of seeds. This is increasing every year (Table 5, Fig. 5) in several Terai and midhill districts of Nepal. LI-BIRD and FORWARD are strengthening community-based seed producers groups in eleven districts to increase seed supply, and these groups are producing and supplying a significant amount of rice seed. 

As an example of scale of use, in 2003, 37 t seeds of Barkhe 1027, Sugandha 1, Barkhe 2014, Barkhe 3004 and Barkhe 2001 was marketed. An advertisement on FM Radio (which can be heard in 35 districts of Nepal) was done for COB varieties one month before nursery raising time in April-May. Following this, many seed buyers came and the seeds were sold out within seven days. The reasons for such a response may be several, e.g. the popularity of those varieties among farmers, quality of seed, reasonable price, no bureaucratic hurdle.

However, this is still on a very small scale compared to actual needs. It is a reasonable assumption that the COB varieties are better alternatives to others on at least 40% of the total of 1.1 M ha of rice in the Terai. If only 10% of this area is sown to purchased, quality seed each year then sufficient seed to transplant 0.042 M ha of rice is needed. This amounts to over 2100 t of rice seed each year at a rate of 50 kg ha^‑1. At present, only 7 % of this amount (and a 10% replacement rate is a modest target) is being supplied through the formal sector, clearly showing that even though the varieties have been scaled up to some extent, it is not enough.

Table 5. Amount of rice seed (main and spring) produced and marketed (t) since 2002-2006 by the community-based seed producer groups facilitated by LI-BIRD

†Approach of seed production and distribution. The quantity produced in 2000 was 6 t and in 2001 12 t.

Table 6. Number of PVS sets of Chaite and main season COB bred rice varieties distributed in various districts of Nepal, 2003-2006

Process: Rice varietal promotion in Nepal is coordinated by NRRP; varieties introduced or bred in Nepal are evaluated by NRRP and NARC for yield and agronomic performance, proposed for release to the National Seed Board and then widely disseminated by the Department of Agriculture and its networks, other NGOs, CBOs and seed companies. In the conventional approach, actual adoption takes place 5-6 years after a variety is released. Assuming a variety development phase of 12 years, it would need at least 18 years before appreciable variety adoption took place.

An institutional innovation took place in COB rice by bringing together the stakeholders very early in the breeding process. For example, NRRP was involved in disease screening, DADOs participated in the evaluation and promotion of varieties and farmers groups were involved in the production and marketing of the seeds.

Outputs: This new innovation platform was very helpful in very rapidly developing and disseminating these varieties across many districts of Nepal. The variety Barkhe 3004,  released through a partnership between LI-BIRD, CAZS-NR and NRRP, was also an outcome of this institutional innovation. LI-BIRD, an NGO, has fully institutionalised all the elements of COB, and is successfully developing rice varieties for diverse environments. NARC, through NRRP, collaborates in this programme, testing varieties from COB in its disease nurseries and entering them into its on-station yield testing. It also provides its own varieties to LI-BIRD for testing in PVS trials. NRRP contributes to identifying and verifying rice varieties though coordinated yield trials. There is evidence that the NRRP now makes fewer, more carefully chosen crosses. NRRP is also a co-proposer on varieties bred by COB such as Barkhe 3004.

Key factors in this success in Nepal have been specific research partnerships related to COB over a long period, and formalising collaboration with LI-BIRD and NRRP. This enabled NRRP breeders to officially collaborate in more participatory approaches and allowed many opportunities for NRRP scientists to learn of these approaches.

Lessons Learned and Uptake Pathways

Rice varieties developed from COB are promoted in Nepal, through various governmental and non-governmental research and development organizations  such as DADOs, NGOs, and Agrovets. (Fig. 5).  They are being multiplied by at least 10 community-based seed producer groups in at least six districts, namely

• Unnat, Shree Ram and Devujjal Seed Producers groups in Chitwan,
• Nawa Adharsha Farmer Seed Producers Group in Jhapa,
• Radhakrishna and Krishnapranami Women Seed Producers Group in Rautahat,
• Surayadaya Bahu Uddeshe Krishak Sahakari Sanstha Ltd. in Dang,
• Kalika Seed Production Group in Kailali and
• Siddhanath Seed Producers Group in Kanchanpur districts of Nepal,
• Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS), Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.

Fig 5. The extent of promotion of these varieties by NGOs, Agrovets (the private sector) and the District Agriculture Development Offices as of 2006.

The extent of adoption was assessed (Devkota et al., 2005, Rawal et al., 2006; Gauchan, 2006, Joshi et al., 2006) and found to be quite extensive in relation to how recently seed of the varieties has been available.

Outputs: The formal seed channels in Nepal do not officially promote non-released varieties but collaboration from the Department of Agriculture in promoting non-released COB varieties was very good, and NRRP no longer oppose COB, as PVS is seen as integral to the varietal testing system.

Policy issues: Changes in the seed regulatory framework to encourage farmer participation have been made. For example, in the release proposal for Barkhe 3004, on-station and on-farm data from participatory trials were given equal status and validity. This is illustrated by Figure 6 taken from the release proposal where CVT (on-station) and mother and baby trials data were presented in a single analysis.

Fig. 6.  Stability of Barkhe 2004 over standard check variety Masuli in CVT (n=28) mother trials (n=18) and baby trials (n=23) data. Linear regression trend lines are shown.

However, there has been inertia in the process of marketing new varieties, evidenced by the slowness in meeting only a small proportion of current demand.

Process: A huge barrier in adopting COB methods is the mindset of breeders who have been taught about the effectiveness of the classic ‘green revolution’ approach involving on-station breeding for wide adaptation and making hundreds of crosses each year, reinforced by official policies on varietal identification, release and dissemination. Variety recommendation is highly formalised,  regulated by customary practices and laws (seeds acts) that conflict with the participatory technology development approach.

The best way to remove the barriers will be to change mindsets through wide scale training of GO and, to a lesser extent, NGO staff in the COB process to appreciate its potential impact. There is limited human resource capacity, particularly in GOs, in participatory approaches to research, while NGOs have limited capacity in seed-related issues, and most would regard plant breeding as being well beyond their capabilities. We do not believe this to be true since the COB methods are very simple and adapted for use by NGOs without access to a research station. Moreover, NGO/GO collaboration has been shown to be possible and effective for COB.

Policy makers need to be brought into this dialogue, as they are rarely involved.

There need to be changes in curricula in Universities to mainstream participatory, client-oriented approaches to plant breeding. Once convinced of the approach, there would not be any problem to increase the adoption of the output of this process.

Using Rogers (2003) method as a framework for the lessons learnt:

1. The relative advantage of a technology compared to what it is replacing;

This is generally high (see Table 1) and farmers generally agree on the reasons why they prefer a new variety.

2. The compatibility of the technology with existing systems and ways of doing things, closely related to culture;

Compatibility with farmers is high as they are used to experimentation in their own fields. For scientists and extensionists trained in the transfer of technology model, compatibility is low but awareness of participatory approaches in Nepal is better than elsewhere. For the process of COB large changes are required.

3. The complexity of the technology in terms of what people need to learn to make it work;

Complexity is low for farmers (baby trials are extremely simple) and the new rice varieties do not require altered agronomy. Technology is moderately complex for scientists/extensionists who must learn a range of new participatory techniques. COB methods are simpler than those currently used.

4. The observability of a technology in terms of how easy it is to demonstrate and observe performance;

Observability is high for many traits, e.g. maturity and yield, although post-harvest traits are more difficult.

5. The trialability of a technology in terms of how easy it is to test it before deciding to adopt.

Trialability is high if seed is available, but impossible without seed and difficult to do properly without information (high risk of growing the new variety in the wrong part of the rice continuum).

The most important lesson, assuming the lesson of using participatory approaches has been well accepted, is the need for provision of seed on a large scale and the provision of information to all stakeholders in the innovation system, by specifically including policymakers, traders and consumers as well as researchers, extensionists and farmers.

Impacts On Poverty

1. Devkota K.P., Gyawali S., Subedi A., Witcombe J.A.D. & Joshi K.D. (2005). Adoption study of main season rice in Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of Nepal from 2001 to 2002. Discussion paper no. 6 (in press) Wales, Bangor: CAZS Natural Resources, University of Wales www.dfid-psp.ac.uk
2. Gauchan, D. (2006). Assessment of the outcomes of rice-fallow rainfed rabi cropping (RRC) project in Nepal Terai. A report of the RRC outcome assessment in Kapilvastu, Saptari and Jhapa districts, Nepal. Bangor, UK: CAZS Natural Resources, University of Wales, Bangor.
3. Joshi, G.R., Paudel, P.K., Rawal, K.B. & Singh, U. (2006). Assessment of adoption and spread of rice varieties bred by COB and identified by PCI. SUPPORT Foundation, PO Box: 24, Mahendranagar, Kanchanpur, Nepal.
4. Joshi, K.D., Biggs, S., Devkota, K. and Gyawali, S. (2003). Delivering impacts from participatory crop improvement projects in Nepal. PSP Annual Report 2003. Section 1: Introduction and General Overview. Research Outcomes. pp 11-18.
5. Rawal, K.B., Bhatta, V.R., Joshi, G.R. & Singh U. (2006). Adoption and spread of rice varieties in Sarlahi and Kailali districts identified by participatory crop improvement (PCI) and bred by client-oriented breeding (COB). Kanchanpur, Nepal: SUPPORT Foundation.
6. Witcombe, J.R. Joshi, K.D., Gyawali, S., Devkota, K. & Subedi, A. (2002). An impact assessment of participatory crop improvement in the low-altitude regions of Nepal. PSP Annual Report 2002. Section 1: Introduction and General Overview. Research Outcomes. pp 11-18.
7. Witcombe, J.R. Joshi, K.D., Gyawali, S., Devkota, K. & Subedi, A. (2004). Participatory crop improvement in the low-altitude regions of Nepal. Plant Sciences Research Programme. Highlights and impact. Participatory crop improvement. pp 21-50.
8. Witcombe, J.R., Joshi, K.D., Gyawali, S., Devkota, K. & Subedi, A. (2004). Participatory crop improvement in the low-altitude regio&ns of Nepal. Impact assessment working document 6.2 October 2004. Stand-alone report CAZS and LI-BIRD. (Earlier version published as: An impact assessment of participatory crop improvement in the low-altitude regions of Nepal. (2003) JR Witcombe, KD Joshi, S Gyawali & A Subedi PSP Annual Report for 2002)

Several financial analyses have been done. All show high rates of return and large NPVs. The estimates, of course, do vary greatly according to the assumptions used but present adoption is probably closest to the high scenario (see Fig 7. below).

Fig. 7. The NPV and IRR over time with the ‘conservative’, ‘realistic’ and ‘higher’ scenarios (source Witcombe et al., 2004 reference 8 above)

Below is an example of one of many interviews with farmers on the new varieties.

Keshar Khatiwada is a food balance farmer (Category A). He grew Sugandha 1 in about 0.1 ha land and harvested about 500 kg rice. He found it can be successfully grown with moderate fertility and irrigation. It can even give reasonable yield where other varieties do not perform well, e.g. area where topsoil has been removed for brick making and under water-limited conditions.

Its straw yield is nearly one and a half times that of other varieties and because of quite tall length of the straw, it is very much suitable for making gundri (a kind of mat made using rice straw).

Sugandha 1 matures nearly 10-12 days earlier than other varieties enabling the early/timely planting of potato, other vegetables or winter maize that fetch a premium price in the market.

It has high milling recovery and the eating quality of rice is good in spite of stickiness. One thing noted by most farmers growing Sugandha 1 was also mentioned by Keshar, that was that rice cooked from freshly harvested lot has strong aroma and cannot be consumed in great quantities (it is heavy and highly satisfying). This is known as aman garaune .

Adoption studies have used sophisticated methods to obtain unbiased estimates of adoption such as the random identification of points for transects using geographical positions systems (see below).

Study area in Chitwan district showing the randomly elected points for the transects. These points were found precisely using GPS and systematic transects made to sample 50 precise predetermined points.

How the Poor have Benefited (including gender and other poverty groups):

The adoption of main season rice varieties was 18% within two to six years of intervention, with a high number of adopting households. Since 2002, a significant amount of seed of several COB varieties has been distributed and sold in various districts of Nepal. Considering a seed rate of 50 kg to plant one hectare and at least trebling in farmer-to-farmer seed distribution every year, several thousands of farmers in several districts covering thousands of hectares of rice area in Nepal have sown the new varieties.

The yield gains in all of the COB varieties clearly showed that participating farmers benefited from the new varieties (Table 2). These increased yields along with the higher quality of the new varieties contributed considerably to reducing poverty and addressing food and livelihood security, e.g. food sufficiency was increased from six months to one year in the majority of cases. Increased family income was crucial for e.g., life-saving health care, children’s schooling, meeting household requirements, social obligations (marriage), and farm improvements, and for food surplus households cash income increased from the sale of surplus grains (Joshi et al., 2003).

The issue of social inclusion was addressed by engaging with disadvantaged and marginalised communities. Results of outcome assessment indicated that >75% of sampled beneficiaries for Chaite rice activities were indigenous people and disadvantaged communities, while this percentage was nearly 53% for main season rice (Joshi et al., 2006).

A range of varietal choices were created for the less favourable areas where the crop is grown under rainfed conditions or with limited irrigation or for example in long-standing water. Rice varietal diversity increased considerably in the study villages reducing the area under old, obsolete and disease susceptible varieties by growing new, better-adapted, early-maturing, higher-yielding and farmer-preferred varieties, so improving overall systems productivity and strengthening food security (Devkota et al., 2005).

Environmental Impact

Direct and indirect benefits:

• The adoption of the COB process will reduce wastage on a  national level by reducing the number of varieties that are breed and tested only to be ultimately rejected by farmers.
• Increased productivity per unit area without the use of additional external inputs, especially pesticides, is environmentally beneficial. The new varieties have better nitrogen-use efficiency: nitrate is an important pollutant and its synthetic production is a significant contributor to global warming (IPCC, 2001).
• Increased productivity will reduce the pressure to increase the area under cultivation (Evenson and Gollin, 2003).
• Varietal diversification will help reduce crop loss due to pests and diseases and thereby reduce the use of pesticides. Introduction of new varieties always increases on-farm diversity as farmers adopt different cultivars for different niches.
• The better disease and pest resistance of the new varieties can reduce the use of water- and soil-polluting agro-chemicals. Reduced use of pesticides and insecticides will also reduce the risk to human life and help in the creation of a balanced pest-predator cycle.

Any adverse environmental impact is unlikely in the present case as the new varieties are scale neutral and do not require any special cultural, management and production inputs.

Earlier maturing varieties have increased the resilience of farmers by making available extra time for other operations, lower cost of production, reduced use of water and nutrients besides, in some cases, increasing cropping intensity (two crops a year in the place of one) 

Varietal diversification is a means of coping with climate change. For example, the staggered deployment of varieties that take different times to mature reduces the risks from drought, diseases and pests, and adverse weather (high winds, hail, and floods). The new varieties do well under low irrigation but respond to better conditions thus increasing the resilience of farmers to cope with variation.

Annex

References

Baniya, B.K., Subedi A., Rana R.B., Paudel C.L., Khatiwada S.P., Rijal D.K. &  Sthapit B.R (2000). Informal rice seed supply system and storage systems in mid-hills of Nepal. In A Scientific basis of in situ conservation of agrobiodiversity on-farm: Nepal’s contribution to the global project (B Sthapit, M Upadhaya and A Subedi editors) pp 79-91.

CBS. (2005). Statistical Year Book of Nepal 2005. His Majesty’s Government of Nepal, National Planning Commission Secretariat, Central Bureau of Statistics, Kathmandu, Nepal

Devkota K.P., Gyawali S., Subedi A., Witcombe J.A.D. & Joshi K.D. (2005) Adoption study of main season rice in Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts of Nepal from 2001 to 2002. Discussion paper no. 6 Wales, Bangor: CAZS Natural Resources, University of Wales. Available at www.dfid-psp.org

Devkota, K.P., Tripathi M., Chaudary M., Gurung M., Poudel H.  & Gyawali S. (2006). Final Technical Report of R8071-Participatory Plant Breeding in High Potential Production Systems-Validating PPB products, testing different breeding methods and scaling up of new rice varieties. Available at www.dfid-psp.org

Evenson, R. E  & Gollin D. (2003) Assessing the Impact of the Green Revolution, 1960 to 2000. Science 300: 758 – 762.

Gauchan, D. (2006). Assessment of the Outcomes of Rice-fallow Rainfed Rabi Cropping (RRC) Project in Nepal Terai. A report of the RRC outcome assessment in Kapilvastu, Saptari and Jhapa districts, Nepal. Bangor, UK: CAZS-Natural Resources, University of Wales, Bangor.

Gyawali S., Witcombe J.R., Joshi K.D., Devkota K.P., Tripathi M.P., Subedi M., Sunwar S., Chaudary B.N., Chaudary D., Adhikari N.P., Akthar T., Yadav R.B., Khatiwada S.P., Subedi D. & Mishra H.D. (2006). A proposal for release of rice variety Barkhe 3004. Jointly submitted by LI-BIRD, CAZS-NR, NRRP-NARC and JYC Chitwan. Available at www.dfid-psp.org

IPCC (2001). Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [eds: Houghton, J.T.,Y. Ding, D.J. Griggs, M. Noguer, P.J. van der Linden, X. Dai, K.

Joshi, K. D. & Witcombe, J. R. (2000). Participatory varietal selection, food security and varietal diversity in a high potential production system in Nepal. Paper presented in an international symposium on participatory plant breeding and participatory plant genetic resource enhancement: An exchange of experiences from South and South East Asia held at Pokhara, Nepal from 1-5 May, 2000 (In press).

Joshi, K.D., Musa, A.M., Johansen, C., Gyawali, S., Harris, D. & J.R. Witcombe. (2006). Highly client-oriented breeding, using local preferences and selection, produces widely adapted rice varieties. Field Crops Research 100: 107-116.

Joshi, K.D., Biggs, S., Devkota, K. P., Gyawali, S. & Witcombe, J. R. (2003). Institutional innovation in the Nepal rice innovation system. In Proceedings of a workshop uptake pathways and scaling up of agricultural technologies to enhance the livelihoods of Nepalese farmers, 23-25 September 2003. Kathmandu, Nepal: Hill Agricultural Research Project.

 Joshi, K.D., Biggs, S., Gauchan, D., Devkota, K. P., Devkota, C. K., Shrestha, P.K. & Sthapit, B. R. (2006). The evolution and spread of socially responsible technical and institutional changes in a rice innovation system in Nepal. CAZS NR Discussion Paper 8. Bangor, Wales, UK: CAZS Natural Resources 

Rana R.B., Joshi K.D., Gyawali S. & Witcombe J.R. (2004). Baseline study of participatory crop improvement project Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts Nepal. Discussion paper no. 5. CAZS-Natural Resources, University of Wales, Bangor

Rawal, K.B., Bhatta, V.R., Joshi, G.R. & U., Singh (2006). Adoption and spread of rice varieties in Sarlahi and Kailali districts identified by participatory crop improvement (PCI) and bred by client-oriented breeding (COB). Kanchanpur, Nepal: SUPPORT Foundation.

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Annex 1. Grain yield of Barkhe 3004 from crop cut survey from Baby trials, 2005

^†Mean ± SEM, ^§ Number of farmers growing various varieties as check in Baby trials were: Masuli (23), Sona Masuli (23), Sarjoo 52 (18), Mala (5), Sabitri (4), Rambilash or Radha 11 (4), Jhapali Masuli (3), Swarna (2), Pusa 44 (1) and Radha 4 (1)

Annex 2. Farmers’ perceptions for Barkhe 3004 in 111 Baby trials in 2003, 27 baby trials in 2004 and 124 baby trials in 2005 and their intentions for growing the variety  in the following year in Chitwan, Nawalparasi, Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Siraha, Bara, Makawanpur and Saptari districts of Nepal.

^†‘Barkhe 3004 preferred’ versus ‘Check preferred’ using χ² test.

Annex 3. Farmers’ perceptions for Barkhe 2014 on 154 baby trials in eleven districts of Nepal [Chitwan (36), Bara (10), Jhapa (9), Kailali (4), Makawanpur (10), Morang (5), Saptari (7), Siraha (10), Sunsari (38), Gorkha (3) and Kaski (4)] during 2005

^†‘Barkhe 2014 preferred’ versus ‘Check preferred’ using χ² test.

Annex 4. Farmers’ perceptions for Sugandha 2002 on 32 baby trials in seven districts of Nepal [Kailali (2), Kanchanpur (1), Makawanpur (10), Morang (2), Saptari (3), Siraha (5) and Sunsari (9)] during 2005

^†‘Sugandha 2002 preferred’ versus ‘Check preferred’ using χ² test.

Annex  5. Farmers’ perceptions for Sugandha 1 on 89 baby trials in ten districts of Nepal [Bara (7), Chitwan (14), Jhapa (10), Kailali (6), Kanchanpur (4), Kaski (4), Makawanpur (9), Saptari (7), Siraha (12) and Sunsari (11)] during 2005

^†‘Sugandha 1 preferred’ versus ‘Check preferred’ using χ² test.

Relevant Research Projects, with links to the
Research for Development (R4D) web site
and Technical Reports:

R4D	Project Title	Technical Report
R6395	The Development and Testing of Seed-Priming to Improve Stand Establishment, Early Growth and yield in Semi-Arid Zimbabwe and India. Main Report. Summary.
R6748	Participatory Crop Improvement in High Potential Production Systems in India and Nepal
R7122	Participatory Plant Breeding in Rice for High Potential Production Systems in the Terai and low hills of Nepal
R7377	Development of sustainable weed management systems in direct seeded, irrigated rice
R7412	Incorporation of local knowledge into soil and water management interventions which minimise nutrient losses in the Middle Hills of Nepal
R7438	Participatory promotion of "on farm" seed priming
R7471	Developing weed management strategies for rice based cropping systems in Bangladesh
R7540	Promotion of chickpea following rainfed rice in the Barind area of Bangladesh
	Uptake and impact of the promotion of chickpea following rainfed rice in the Barind area of Bangladesh
R7541	Assessing the potential for short-duration legumes in South Asian rice fallows
R7542	Participatory crop improvement in high potential production systems - piloting sustainable adoption of new technologies
R7778	Rice sheath blight complex caused by Rhizoctonia species: pathogen epidemiology and management strategies
R8071	Participatory plant breeding in high potential production systems - an evaluation of products and methods
R8098	Promotion of rainfed rabi cropping in rice fallows of India and Nepal: pilot phase
R8099	Participatory plant breeding in rice and maize in eastern India
R8164	Applying benchmarking as a tool for irrigation management reform
	The River Basin Game Manual. A water dialogue tool
R8221	Promotion of rainfed rabi cropping in rice fallows of eastern India and Nepal: Phase 2
R8233	Promotion of integrated weed management for direct seeded rice in the Gangetic Plains of India. Main Report. Annex 1, Annex 2, Annex 3, Annex 4.
R8234	Promotion of cost-effective weed management practices for lowland rice in Bangladesh
R8269	Improvement of rainfed cropping systems in the High Barind Tract of Bangladesh
R8281	Linking the demand for, and supply of, agricultural production and post-harvest information in Uganda. Main Report. Annex.
R8409	Promotion of weed management options for irrigated rice in India and the development of materials and decision support.
R8412	Decision support frameworks for weed management in lowland rice in Bangladesh
R8424	Rodent management in Bangladesh
R8429	Linking supply and demand in Uganda phase 2. Main Report. Annex.
R8447	Rice pest information management
R8480	The Good Seed Initiative - sharing the learning from CPP programmes into pro-poor seed systems in East Africa

For relevant research projects, with links to further information

Geographical regions included:

Nepal,

Target Audiences for this content:

Crop farmers,